Battery Reference Book free download

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements
1 1ntroduc:tion to battery technology
Electromotive force . Reversible cells . Reversible
electrodes . Relationship between electrical energy and
energy content of a cell . Free energy changes and electromotive
forces in cells . Relationship between the
energy changes accompanying a cell reaction and concentration
of the reactants . Single electrode potentials
. Activities of electrolyte solutions . Influence of ionic
concentration1 in the electrolyte on electrode potential
. Effect of sulphuric acid concentration on e.m.f.
in the lead-acid battery . End-of-charge and end-ofdischarge
e.m.f. values . Effect of cell temperature on
e.m.f. in the lead-acid battery . Effect of temperature
and temperature coefficient of voltage dEldT on
heat content change of cell reaction . Derivation of
the number of electrons involved in a cell reaction .
Thermodynamic calculation of the capacity of a battery
. Calculation of initial volume of sulphuric acid
. Calculation of operating parameters for a lead-acid
battery from calorimetric measurements . Calculation
of optimum acid volume for a cell Effect of cell layout
in batteries on battery characteristics . Calculation
of energy density of cells . Effect of discharge rate on
performance characteristics . Heating effects in batteries
. Spontaneous reaction in electrochemical cells .
Pressure development in sealed batteries
4 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-iron
secondary batteries . Nickel-zinc secondary batteries
. Nickel-hydrogen secondary batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride
secondary batteries
2 Guidelines to battery selection
Primary batteries . Secondary batteries . Conclusion
Pat3 1 Battery Characteristics
3 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Open-type lead-acid batteries . Non-spill lead-acid
batteries . Recombining sealed lead-acid batteries
5 Silver batteries
Silver oxide-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium secondary batteries
. Silver-hydrogen secondary batteries
6 Alkaline manganese batteries
Alkaline manganese primary batteries . Alkaline manganese
secondary batteries
7 Carbon-zinc and carbon-zinc chloride
primary batteries
Carbon-zinc batteries . Carbon-zinc chloride batteries
8 Mercury batteries
Mercury-zinc primary batteries . Mercury-indiumbismuth
and mercury -cadmium primary batteries
9 Lithium batteries
Introduction . Lithium- sulphur dioxide primary
batteries . Lithium-thionyl chloride primary batteries
. Lithium-vanadium pentoxide primary batteries
. Lithium-manganese dioxide primary batteries .
Lithium-copper oxide primary batteries . Lithiumsilver
chromate primary batteries . Lithium-lead
bismuthate primary cells . Lithium-polycarbon
monofluoride primary batteries . Lithium solid
electrolyte primary batteries . Lithium-iodine primary
batteries . Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary
batteries . Lithium (aluminium) iron monosulphide
secondary batteries . Lithium-iron disulphide primary
cells . Lithium- silver-vanadium pentoxide batteries
10 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
Reserve type
11 Magnesium-organic electrolyte
primary batteries
12 Metal-air cells
Zinc-air primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Cadmium-air secondary batteries . Aluminium-
air secondary batteries . Iron-air secondary
batteries
13 High-temperature thermally activated
primary reserve batteries
Performance characteristics of calcium anode thermal
batteries . Performance characteristics of lithium anode
thermal batteries
14 Zinc-halogen secondary batteries
Zinc-chlorine secondary batteries . Zinc-bromine
secondary batteries
15 Sodium-sulphur secondary batteries
16 Other fast-ion conducting solid
systems
17 Water-activated primary batteries
Magnesium-silver chloride batteries . Zinc- silver
chloride batteries . Magnesium-cuprous chloride batteries
Part 2 Battery theory and design
18 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Chemical reactions during battery cycling . Maintenance-
free lead-acid batteries . Important physical
characteristics of antimonial lead battery grid alloys
. Lead alloy development in standby (stationary)
batteries . Separators for lead-acid automotive
batteries Further reading
19 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen
and silver-hydrogen secondary batteries .
Nickel-zinc secondary batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Nickel-iron secondary
batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride secondary batteries
20 Silver batteries
Silver oxide-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium secondary batteries
21 Alkaline manganese batteries
Alkaline manganese primary batteries . Alkaline manganese
secondary batteries
22 Carbon-zinc and carbon-zinc chloride
batteries
Carbon-zinc primary batteries . Carbon-zinc chloride
primary batteries
23 Mercury-zinc batteries
Mercury-zinc primary batteries . Mercury-zinc cardiac
pacemaker batteries
24 Lithium batteries
Lithium-sulphur dioxide primary batteries . Lithiumthionyl
chloride primary batteries . Lithium-vanadium
pentoxide primary batteries . Lithium solid electrolyte
primary batteries . Lithium-iodine primary
batteries . Lithium-manganese dioxide primary
batteries . Lithium-copper oxide primary batteries
. Lithium-carbon monofluoride primary batteries .
Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary batteries
. Lithium (aluminium) iron sulphide secondary cells .
Lithium-iron disulphide primary batteries
25 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
26 Metal-air batteries
Zinc-air primary batteries . Metal-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary reserve batteries
27 High-temperature thermally activated
primary batteries
Calcium anode-based thermal batteries . Lithium anode
thermal batteries . Lithium alloy thermal batteries
28 Zinc- halogen secondary batteries
Zinc-chlorine batteries . Zinc-bromine batteries
29 Sodium-sulphur secondary batteries
References on sodium-sulphur batteries
Pard: 3 Battery performance evaluation
30 Primary batteries
Service time--voltage data . Service life-ohmic load
curves . Effect of operating temperature on service
life Voltage-capacity curves . Shelf life-percentage
capacity retained . Other characteristic curves
31 Secondary batteries
Discharge curves . Terminal voltage-discharge time
curves . Plateau voltage-battery temperature curves
I Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-discharge
rate curves . Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-
discharge temperature curves and percentage
withdrawable capacity returned-temperature curves
. Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-terminal
voltage curves . Withdrawable capacity-terminal
voltage cunies . Capacity returned (discharged
capacity) -discharge current curves . Discharge
rate-capacity returned (discharged capacity) curves .
Discharge rate-terminal voltage curves . Discharge
rate-mid-point voltage curves . Discharge rate-energy
density curves . Self-discharge characteristics and shelf
life . Float life characteristics
Part 4 Battery Applications
32 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Stationary type or standby power batteries . Traction
or motive power type . Starting, lighting and ignition
(SLI) or automotive batteries . Partially recombining
sealed lead-acid batteries . Load levelling batteries .
Electric vehicle batteries
33 Nickel lbatteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-zinc
secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen secondary
batteries . Nickel-metal hydride secondary batteries
. Nickel-iron secondary batteries . Sodium-nickel
chloride secondary batteries
34 Silver batteries
Silver-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium batteries
35 Alkaline manganese primary batteries
36 Carbon-zinc primary batteries
Comparison of alkaline manganese and carbon-zinc
cell drain rates . Drain characteristics of major consumer
applications
37 Mercury batteries
Mercury -zinc primary batteries . Mercury-cadmium
primary batteries . Mercury-indium-bismuth primary
batteries
38 Lithium primary batteries
Lithium- sulphur dioxide . Lithium-vanadium pentoxide
. Lithium-thionyl chloride . Lithium-manganese
dioxide . Lithium-copper oxide Lithium- silver chromate
. Lithium-lead bismuthate . Lithium-polycarbon
monofluoride . Lithium solid electrolyte . Lithiumiodine
. Comparison of lithium-iodine and nickelcadmium
cells in CMOS-RAM applications .
Lithium-iron disulphide primary cells . Lithiummolybdenum
disulphide secondary cells . Lithium
(aluminium) iron sulphide secondary cells
39 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
Reserve batteries . Non-reserve batteries
40 Metal-air batteries
Zinc-air Primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary batteries
41 High-temperature thermally activated
primary batteries
42 Seawater-activated primary batteries
43 Electric vehicle secondary batteries
Lead-acid batteries . Other power sources for vehicle
propulsion
Part 5 Battery charging
44 Introduction
45 Constant-potential charging
Standard CP charging . Shallow cycle CP charging
of lead-acid batteries . Deep cycle CP charging of
lead-acid batteries . Float CP charging of lead-acid
batteries . Two-step cyclic voltage-float voltage CP
charging
46 Voltage-limited taper current charging
of alkaline manganese dioxide batteries
47 Constant-current charging
Charge control and charge monitoring of sealed
nickel-cadmium batteries . The Eveready fast-charge
cell (nickel-cadmium batteries) . Types of constantcurrent
charging . Two-step constant-current charging
. Constant-current charger designs for normal-rate
charging . Controlled rapid charger design for
nickel-cadmium batteries . Transformer-type charger
design (Union Carbide) for nickel-cadmium batteries
. Transformerless charge circuits for nickel-cadmium
batteries
48 Taper charging of lead-acid motive
power batteries
Types of charger . Equalizing charge . How to choose
the right charger . Opportunity charging
49 Methods of charging large
nickel-cadmium batteries
Trickle charge/float charge . Chargeldischarge operations
on large vented nickel-cadmium batteries .
Standby operation . Ventilation
Part 6 Battery suppliers
50 Lead-acid (secondary) batteries
Motive power batteries . Standby power batteries
Automotive batteries . Sealed lead-acid batteries
Spillproof lead-acid batteries
51 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen
batteries . Nickel-zinc batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Nickel-iron secondary
batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride secondary batteries
52 Silver batteries
Silver-zinc batteries . Silver-cadmium (secondary)
batteries . Silver-hydrogen secondary batteries . Silver-
iron secondary batteries
53 Alkaline manganese dioxide batteries
Primary batteries . Secondary batteries
54 Carbon-zinc batteries (primary) and
carbon-zinc chloride batteries
55 Mercury batteries
Mercury-zinc (primary) batteries . Mercury-zinc cardiac
pacemaker batteries . Other types of mercury
battery
Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries . Lithium-manganese
dioxide batteries . Lithium-silver chromate batteries
. Lithium-copper oxide batteries . Lithium-lead
bismuthate batteries . Lithium-copper oxyphosphate
cells . Lithium- polycarbon monofluoride batteries .
Lithium solid electrolyte batteries . Lithium-iodine
batteries . Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary
batteries . Lithium-iron disulphide primary batteries .
Lithium alloy -iron sulphide secondary batteries
57 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate (primary) batteries
Reserve-type batteries . Non-reserve batteries
58 Magnesium-organic electrolyte
batteries
59 Metal-air cells
Zinc-air primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary batteries . Iron-air
secondary batteries
60 Thermally activated batteries
61 Zinc- halogen batteries
Zinc-bromine secondary batteries
62 Sodium-sulphur batteries
63 Water-activated batteries
McMurdo Instruments magnesium-silver chloride
seawater batteries . SAFT magnesium-silver chloride
batteries . SAFT zinc-silver chloride batteries . SAFT
magnesium-copper iodide seawater-energized primary
batteries . Eagle Picher water activated primary
batteries
Suppliers of primary and secondary
batteries
Glossary
Battery standards
Battery journals, trade organizations and
conferences
Bibliography
Index
56 Lithium batteries
Lithium-vanadium pentoxide (primary) batteries
. Lithium-sulphur dioxide (primary) batteries .
Preface
Primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable)
batteries are an area of manufacturing industry
that has undlergone a tremendous growth in the past
two or three decades, both in sales volume and in
variety of products designed to meet new applications.
Not so long ago, mention of a battery to many
people brought to mind the image of an automotive
battery or a torch battery and, indeed, these
accounted for the majority of batteries being produced.
There were of course other battery applications such
as submarine and aircraft batteries, but these were
of either the lead-acid or alkaline type. Lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron and carbon-zinc represented
the only electrochemical couples in use at that
time.
There now exist a wide range of types of batteries,
both primary and secondary, utilizing couples
that were not dreamt of a few years ago. Many of
these couples have been developed and utilized to produce
batteries to meet specific applications ranging
from electric vehicle propulsion, through minute batteries
for incorporation as memory protection devices
in printed circuits in computers, to pacemaker batteries
used in h.eart surgery. This book attempts to draw
together in one place the available information on all
types of battery now being commercially produced.
It starts with a chapter dealing with the basic theory
behind t!he operation of batteries. This deals with
the effects omf such factors as couple materials, electrolyte
composition, concentration and temperature on
battery performance, and also discusses in some detail
such factors as the effect of discharge rate on battery
capacity. The basic thermodynamics involved in
battery operation are also discussed. The theoretical
treatment concentrates OK the older types of battery,
such as lead--acid, where much work has been carried
out over the years. The ideas are, however, in many
cases equally applicable to the newer types of battery
and one of the objectives of this chapter is to assist
the reader in carrying out such calculations.
The following chapters ,discuss various aspects
of primary and secondary batteries including those
batteries such as silver-zinc and alkaline manganese
which are available in both forms.
Chapter 2 is designed to present the reader with
information on the types of batteries available and to
assist him or her in choosing a type of battery which
is suitable for any particular application, whether this
be a digital watch or a lunar landing module.
Part 1 (Chapters 3-17) presents all available
information on the performance characteristics of
various types of battery and it highlights the parameters
that it is important to be aware of when considering
batteries. Such information is vital when discussing
with battery suppliers the types and characteristics of
batteries they can supply or that you may wish them
to develop.
Part 2 (Chapters 18-29) is a presentation of the theory,
as far as it is known, behind the working of all the
types of battery now commercially available and of the
limitations that battery electrochemistry might place
on performance. It also discusses the ways in which
the basic electrochemistry influences battery design.
Whilst battery design has always been an important
factor influencing performance and other factors such
as battery weight it is assuming an even greater
importance in more recently developed batteries.
Part 3 (Chapters 30 and 3 1) is a comprehensive discussion
of practical methods for determining the performance
characteristics of all types of battery. This is
important to both the battery producer and the battery
user. Important factors such as the measurement of the
effect of discharge rate and temperature on available
capacity and life are discussed.
Part 4 (Chapters 32-43) is a wide ranging look at
the current applications of various types of battery
and indicates areas of special interest such as vehicle
propulsion, utilities loading and microelectronic and
computer applications.
Part 5 (Chapters 44-49) deals with all aspects of
the theory and practice of battery charging and will be
of great interest to the battery user.
Finally, Part 6 (Chapters 50-63) discusses the massive
amount of information available from battery

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Motivation

Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions

• Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years

The global consumption of primary energy has been marked by a strong increase in
the past 40 years. Figure 1.1 presents the development of primary energy consumption,
broken down into groupings, namely industrial countries of the OECD; former
Soviet Union; and emerging economies (i.e. developing countries). In 1965, the
worldwide consumption of primary energy amounted to only 3,860 MTOE (million
tonnes of oil equivalent); by 2005, it had increased to 10,224 MTOE. This corresponds
to an increase of 172% or an annual rate of increase of 2.5% (BP 2008). In
industrial countries, the increase was around 107% for 40 years, corresponding to
an annual rate of increase of almost 2%. In the emerging economies, which started
from a lower absolute level, the increase was 640%, which corresponds to an annual
rate of increase of more than 5%.
Figure 1.2 shows the share of primary energy consumption of the different countries
and regions for the year 2005. A conspicuous fact here is the high share of
North America, where in the USA alone almost a quarter of the entire primary
energy of the world is consumed.
In 2005, the fossil energy sources, i.e. crude oil, natural gas and coal, comprised
87% of primary energy consumption (see Fig. 1.3).

• Developments Until 2030

Predictions of the development of primary energy consumption are based on various
assumptions about the total population, the gross national product and the energy
efficiency of different countries and are highly dependent on general political conditions.
The following shall present predictions of the development of the energy
demand up until 2030, which predominantly rely on an extrapolation of the current
developments and general conditions. The effect of political measures introduced

until now is reflected; future possible and also probable measures are not taken into
consideration. The reference scenario of the International Energy Agency (IEA) in
2006, for instance, assumes a growth of the world population to 8.1 thousand million
up to the year 2030 (2004: 6.4 thousand million), an increase of the gross national
product of 4% at the beginning, levelling off at 2.9% per year, and natural oil prices
of somewhat more than $60 per barrel (real price 2005). Technologies of power
supply and energy utilisation (end-use technologies) become ever more efficient.
The predictions illustrated in Figs. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 of global primary energy
demand, electric power generation, installed power plant capacities and CO2 emissions
rely on data of the IEA and the US Department of Energy (DoE) (IEA 2002,

2006b, a; DoE 2007). They describe probable development if no dramatic measures
are taken to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Possible measures shall
be discussed in Sect. 1.3.
According to Fig. 1.4, global primary energy consumption will increase by more
than 60% (in comparison to the year 2000) by 2030, which corresponds to an annual
rate of increase of about 1.6%. This increase can be explained on the one hand
by the growth of the world population and on the other by the accumulated needs
of the emerging economies, such as China and India. Predictions, for example for
China, say that the energy consumption will double in such countries. Fossil energy
sources will continue to cover more than 80% of the primary energy consumption in
2030, with crude oil still making up the most important energy source, with a rough
fraction of about 35%. Natural gas among all the energy sources shows the highest
rates of increase – the consumption of it will double with respect to the year 2000
and its relative fraction will rise to 26%. The fraction of coal will decrease slightly,

arriving at about 22% by 2030. In the absolute, though, the consumption rises by
50% from the year 2000.
Electric power (see Fig. 1.5) will still further consolidate its great importance
as an end-use energy source. The consumption of electric power will about double
between 2000 and 2030, the rates of increase of 2.4% per year ranging clearly above
the growth rates of primary energy consumption. Coal, with about 37%, will be the
most important primary energy source in electric power generation; natural gas will
increase its share to more than 30%.
The predicted rise of electric power consumption requires the installation of
new power plants on a considerable scale (see Fig. 1.6). The power plant capacity
installed worldwide amounted to about 3,400GW in 2000 and is supposed to
rise to 7,060 in 2030. Taking into consideration that old plants have to be removed

from service and replaced, it follows that, by 2030, electricity-generating plants
with a total capacity of 4,800GW will have to be erected throughout the world.
This corresponds to 9,600 power plants with an electrical power output of 500MW.
One has to assume in this respect that new power plants will be built predominantly
for primary energy sources such as natural gas (about 2,000 GW) and coal (about
1,500 GW). In China alone, thermal power plants, for example, with a total power
of 720GW shall have to be installed by 2020; per year, between 30 and 40 new
coal-fired power plants with a capacity of 600MW are currently being built. While
in the emerging economies and developing countries, new power plants cover the
added demand, new power plants in Europe are planned mainly as substitutes for
existing old plants. By the year 2020, about 200GW of power station capacity shall
be newly installed in Europe.
The CO2 emissions illustrated in Fig. 1.7 suggest a likely rise to about 38 thousand
million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year until 2030. Referring to the year
2000, this corresponds to a rise of about 68%.

to be continued 

preliminary chemical engineering plant design free download

contents

1 . INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DESIGN 1
Research, 2. Other Sources of Innovations, 3. Process Engineering,
4. Professional Responsibilities, 7. Competing Processes,
8 . Typical Problems a Process Engineer Tackles, 9. Comparison with
A l t e r n a t i v e s , 1 4 . C o m p l e t i n g t h e Project, 16. Units,
17. References, 18. Bibliography, 18.
2 . SITE SELECTION
Major Site Location Factors, 25. Other Site Location Factors, 34. Case
Study: Site Selection, 48. References, 54.
23
3 . THE SCOPE 57
The Product, 60. Capacity, 60. Quality, 66. Raw Material Storage,
67. Product Storage, 68. The Process, 69. Waste Disposal,
Utilities, Shipping and Laboratory Requirements, 70. Plans for Future Expansion,
70. Hours of Operation, 71. Completion Date,
71. Safety, 71. Case Study: Scope, 72. Scope Summary,
75. References, 78.
4 . PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY
Chemistry, 79. Separations, 80. Unit Ratio Material Balance,
8 4 . Detailed Flow Sheet, 85. Safety, 89. Case Study: Process Design,
97. Change of Scope, 103. References, 103.
5 . EQUIPMENT LIST
Sizing of Equipment, 106. Planning for Future Expansion,
111. Materials of Construction, 113. Temperature and Pressure,
113. Laboratory Equipment, 114. Completion of Equipment List,
114. Rules of Thumb, 114. Case Study: Major Equipment Required,
117. Change of Scope, 132. References, 133.
6. LAYOUT 141
79
105
New Plant Layout, 141. Expansion and Improvements of Existing
Facilities, 152. Case Study: Layout and Warehouse Requirements,
153. References, 158.
vii
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Product Quality 160. Product Quantity, 160. Plant Safety,
161. Manual or Automatic Control, 161. Control System,
162. Variables to be Measured, 162. Final Control Element,
163. Control and Instrumentation Symbols, 164. Averaging versus Set
Point Control, 166. Material Balance Control, 167. Tempered Heat
Transfer, 168. Cascade Control, 170. Feedforward Control,
171. Blending, 172. Digital Control, 172. Pneumatic versus Electronic
Equipment, 173. Case Study: Instrumentation and Control,
174. References, 180.
159
8. ENERGY AND UTILITY BALANCES
AND MANPOWER NEEDS 181
Conservation of Energy, 182. Energy Balances, 183. Sizing Energy
Equipment, 191. Planning for Expansion, 204. Lighting,
205. Ventilation, Space Heating and Cooling, and Personal Water Requirements,
207. Utility Requirements, 209. Manpower Requirements,
210. Rules of Thumb, 2 11. Case Study: Energy Balance and
Utility Assessment, 213. Change of Scope, 231. References, 232.
9 . COST ESTIMATION 237
Cost Indexes, 237. How Capacity Affects Costs, 239. Factored Cost
Estimate, 246. Improvements on the Factored Estimate, 249. Module
Cost Estimation, 254. Unit Operations Estimate, 258. Detailed Cost
Estimate, 263. Accuracy of Estimates, 264. Case Study: Capital Cost
Estimation, 264. References, 275.
1 0 . ECONOMICS
Cost of Producing a Chemical, 28 1. Capital, 284. Elementary Profitability
Measures, 285. Time Value of Money, 293. Compound Interest,
295. Net Present Value-A Good Profitability Measure, 307. Rate of
Return-Another Good Profitability Measure, 311. Comparison of Net
Present Value and Rate of Return Methods, 316. Proper Interest Rates,
317. Expected Return on the Investment, 323. Case Study: Economic
Evaluation, 324. Problems, 330. References, 338.
1 1 . DEPRECIATION, AMORTIZATION, DEPLETION
AND INVESTMENT CREDIT
Depreciation, 339. Amortization, 348. Depletion Allowance,
348. Investment Credit, 349. Special Tax Rules, 350. Case Study:
The Net Present Value and Rate of Return, 350. Problems.
351. References, 352.
1 2 . DETAILED ENGINEERING,
CONSTRUCTION, AND STARTUP
Detailed Engineering, 353. Construction 361. Startup,
PLANNING TOOLS-CPM AND PERT
CPM, 370. Manpower and Equipment Leveling, 376. Cost and
Schedule Control, 380. Time for Completing Activity, 380.
Computers, 381. PERT, 382. Problems, 386. References, 390.
OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Starting Point, 392. One-at-a-Time Procedure, 393. Single Variable
Gptimizations, 396. Multivariable Optimizations, 396. End Game,
409. Algebraic Objective Functions, 409. Optimizing Optimizations ,
409. Optimization and Process Design, 410. References, 412.
DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
Computer Programs, 416. Sensitivity, 420. Program Sources,
420. Evaluation of Computer Programs, 421. References, 422.
POLLUTION AND ITS ABATEMENT
What is Pollution?, 424. Determining Pollution Standards,
425. Meeting Pollution Standards, 428. Air Pollution Abatement
Methods, 431. Water Pollution Abatement Methods, 437. BOD and
COD, 447. Concentrated Liquid and Solid Waste Treatment Procedures,

 

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Analytical Chemistry Handbook free doenload

contents

PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS
OF ANALYSIS
1.1
1.1 SAMPLING 1.2
1.1.1 Handling the Sample in the Laboratory 1.2
1.1.2 Sampling Methodology 1.3
1.2 MIXING AND REDUCTION OF SAMPLE VOLUME 1.6
1.2.1 Introduction 1.6
1.2.2 Coning and Quartering 1.6
Figure 1.1 Coning Samples 1.7
Figure 1.2 Quartering Samples 1.7
1.2.3 Riffles 1.7
1.3 CRUSHING AND GRINDING 1.8
1.3.1 Introduction 1.8
1.3.2 Pulverizing and Blending 1.8
Table 1.1 Sample Reduction Equipment 1.9
Table 1.2 Properties of Grinding Surfaces 1.10
1.3.3 Precautions in Grinding Operations 1.11
1.4 SCREENING AND BLENDING 1.11
Table 1.3 U.S. Standard Sieve Series 1.12
1.5 MOISTURE AND DRYING 1.12
1.5.1 Forms of Water in Solids 1.13
1.5.2 Drying Samples 1.14
Table 1.4 Drying Agents 1.14
Table 1.5 Solutions for Maintaining Constant Humidity 1.15
1.5.3 Drying Collected Crystals 1.15
Table 1.6 Concentrations of Solutions of H2SO4, NaOH, and CaCl2 Giving
Specified Vapor Pressures and Percent Humidities at 25°C 1.16
1.5.4 Drying Organic Solvents 1.16
Table 1.7 Relative Humidity from Wet- and Dry-Bulb Thermometer Readings 1.17
Table 1.8 Relative Humidity from Dew-Point Readings 1.18
1.5.5 Freeze-Drying 1.19
1.5.6 Hygroscopic lon-Exchange Membrane 1.19
1.5.7 Microwave Drying 1.19
Table 1.9 Chemical Resistance of a Hygroscopic lon-Exchange Membrane 1.20
1.5.8 Critical-Point Drying 1.20
Table 1.10 Transitional and Intermediate Fluids for Critical-Point Drying 1.21
1.5.9 Karl Fischer Method for Moisture Measurement 1.21
1.6 THE ANALYTICAL BALANCE AND WEIGHTS 1.22
1.6.1 Introduction 1.22
Table 1.11 Classification of Balances by Weighing Range 1.23
1.6.2 General-Purpose Laboratory Balances 1.23
Table 1.12 Specifications of Balances 1.23
1.6.3 Mechanical Analytical Balances 1.24
1.6.4 Electronic Balances 1.24
1.6.5 The Weighing Station 1.26
1.6.6 Air Buoyancy 1.27
1.6.7 Analytical Weights 1.27
Table 1.13 Tolerances for Analytical Weights 1.27
1.7 METHODS FOR DISSOLVING THE SAMPLE 1.28
1.7.1 Introduction 1.28
1.7.2 Decomposition of Inorganic Samples 1.29
Table 1.14 Acid Digestion Bomb-Loading Limits 1.31
Table 1.15 The Common Fluxes 1.33
Table 1.16 Fusion Decompositions with Borates in Pt or Graphite Crucibles 1.34
1.7.3 Decomposition of Organic Compounds 1.34
Table 1.17 Maximum Amounts of Combustible Material Recommended
for Various Bombs 1.36
Table 1.18 Combustion Aids for Accelerators 1.36
1.7.4 Microwave Technology 1.38
Table 1.19 Typical Operating Parameters for Microwave Ovens 1.39
1.7.5 Other Dissolution Methods 1.41
Table 1.20 Dissolution with Complexing Agents 1.41
Table 1.21 Dissolution with Cation Exchangers (H Form) 1.42
Table 1.22 Solvents for Polymers 1.42
1.8 FILTRATION 1.42
1.8.1 Introduction 1.42
1.8.2 Filter Media 1.43
Table 1.23 General Properties of Filter Papers and Glass Microfibers 1.44
Table 1.24 Membrane Filters 1.47
Table 1.25 Membrane Selection Guide 1.47
Table 1.26 Hollow-Fiber Ultrafiltration Cartridge Selection Guide 1.48
Table 1.27 Porosities of Fritted Glassware 1.49
Table 1.28 Cleaning Solutions for Fritted Glassware 1.49
1.8.3 Filtering Accessories 1.49
1.8.4 Manipulations Associated with the Filtration Process 1.50
1.8.5 Vacuum Filtration 1.51
1.9 SPECIFICATIONS FOR VOLUMETRIC WARE 1.52
1.9.1 Volumetric Flasks 1.52
Table 1.29 Tolerances of Volumetric Flasks 1.52
1.9.2 Volumetric Pipettes 1.52
Table 1.30 Pipette Capacity Tolerances 1.53
1.9.3 Micropipettes 1.53
Table 1.31 Tolerances of Micropipettes (Eppendorf) 1.53
1.9.4 Burettes 1.54
Table 1.32 Burette Accuracy Tolerances 1.54
SECTION 2
PRELIMINARY SEPARATION
METHODS
2.1 COMPLEX FORMATION, MASKING, AND DEMASKING REACTIONS 2.3
2.1.1 Complex Equilibria Involving Metals 2.3
Table 2.1 Overall Formation Constants for Metal Complexes
with Organic Ligands 2.6
Table 2.2 Overall Formation Constants for Metal Complexes
with Inorganic Ligands 2.9
2.1.2 Masking 2.11
Table 2.3 Masking Agents for Ions of Various Elements 2.12
Table 2.4 Masking Agents for Anions and Neutral Molecules 2.14
2.1.3 Demasking 2.15
Table 2.5 Common Demasking Agents 2.16
2.2 EXTRACTION METHODS 2.17
2.2.1 Solvent Extraction Systems 2.17
2.2.2 Extraction of Formally Neutral Species 2.20
Table 2.6 Properties of Selected Solvents 2.21
Figure 2.1 Log D vs. pH for a Weak Acid (RCOOH Type) with
KHA 6.7 109 and Kd 720 2.22
Table 2.7 Extraction of Systems Having Simple, Nonpolar Species
in Both the Organic Solvent and Aqueous Phase 2.23
Table 2.8 Percentage Extraction of Metals as Chlorides with
Oxygen-Type Solvents 2.24
Table 2.9 Percent Extraction of Elements as Thiocyanates with
Diethyl Ether from 0.5M HCl Solutions 2.26
2.2.3 Metal-Chelate Systems 2.26
Table 2.10 Percentage Extraction of Metals into Tributyl Phosphate
from HCl Solutions 2.27
Table 2.11 Percent Extraction of Elements from Nitric Acid by
Tributyl Phosphate 2.28
Table 2.12 Percentage Extraction of Metals from HCl Solution by
a 5% Solution of Trioctylphosphine Oxide in Toluene 2.29
Table 2.13 Percent Extraction of Elements by 5% Trioctylphosphine Oxide
(in Toluene) from Nitric Acid Solution 2.29
Table 2.14 Percentage Extraction of Metals from HCl Solution with
Di-(2-Ethylhexyl)phosphoric Acid (50% in Toluene) 2.30
Table 2.15 Extraction of Elements from Nitric Acid Solution
with Di-(2-Ethylhexyl)phosphoric Acid 2.31
Figure 2.2 Distribution of Zinc as a Function of Aqueous Hydrogen-Ion
Concentration for Three Stated Concentrations of Chelating
Agent in CCl4 2.32
Table 2.16 Extraction of Metal 8-Hydroxyquinolates (Oxines) with CHCl3 2.33
Table 2.17 pH Ranges for Extractability of Diethyldithiocarbamates
with Carbon Tetrachloride 2.34
Table 2.18 Chelate Solvent Extraction Systems for the Separation
of Elements 2.35
2.2.4 Ion-Association Systems 2.36
Table 2.19 Percent Extraction of Tetraphenylarsonium Anions with CHCl3 2.37
Table 2.20 Percentage Extraction of Metals from HCl Solution with 0.11M
Triisooctylamine in Xylene 2.38
2.2.5 Chelation and Ion Association 2.39
2.2.6 Summary of Extraction Methods for the Elements 2.40
2.2.7 Laboratory Manipulations 2.40
2.2.8 Continuous Liquid–Liquid Extractions 2.40
Table 2.21 Extraction Procedures for the Elements 2.41
Table 2.22 Recoveries by Solvent Extraction under Various Conditions 2.53
Figure 2.3 High-Density Liquid Extractor 2.53
Figure 2.4 Low-Density Liquid Extractor 2.54
2.2.9 Extraction of a Solid Phase 2.54
Figure 2.5 Soxhlet Extractor 2.55
Figure 2.6 Extraction of Solids with the Soxtec® System 2.56
Table 2.23 Solid-Phase Extraction Packings and Polarity Classification 2.56
2.2.10 Supercritical-Fluid Extraction 2.57
Table 2.24 Characteristics of Selected Supercritical Fluids 2.57
2.3 ION-EXCHANGE METHODS (NORMAL PRESSURE, COLUMNAR) 2.59
2.3.1 Chemical Structure of Ion-Exchange Resins 2.59
Table 2.25 Guide to Ion-Exchange Resins 2.61
Table 2.26 Conversion of Ion-Exchange Resins 2.64
Table 2.27 Gel Filtration Media 2.65
2.3.2 Functional Groups 2.66
2.3.3 Exchange Equilibrium 2.66
Table 2.28 Relative Selectivity of Various Counter Cations 2.67
Table 2.29 Relative Selectivity of Various Counter Anions 2.68
2.3.4 Applications 2.70
Table 2.30 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 50W-8X Resin in HCl Solutions 2.72
Table 2.31 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 50W-X8 Resin in Perchloric Acid Solutions 2.73
Table 2.32 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 50W-X8 Resin in Nitric Acid Solutions 2.74
Table 2.33 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 50W-X8 Resin in H2SO4Solutions 2.75
Table 2.34 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 50W-X8 Resin in 0.2N Acid Solutions 2.76
Table 2.35 Distribution Coefficients (Dv) of Metal Ions on
AG 1-10X in HCl Solutions 2.78
2.4 DISTILLATION OR VAPORIZATION METHODS 2.78
Table 2.36 Distribution Coefficients (Dg) of Metal Ions on
AG 1-8X in H2SO4Solutions 2.79
2.4.1 Simple Batch Distillation 2.79
Table 2.37 Metal Separations on Ion Exchangers 2.80
Table 2.38 Selected Applications of Ion Exchange for the Separation
of a Particular Element from Other Elements or Ions 2.82
Table 2.39 Separations by Ligand-Exchange Chromatography 2.90
2.4.2 Inorganic Applications 2.90
Table 2.40 Approximate Percentage of Element Volatilized from
20- to 100-mg Portions at 200 to 220 C by Distillation
with Various Acids 2.91
2.4.3 Distillation of a Mixture of Two Liquids 2.95
2.4.4 Fractional Distillation 2.95
Table 2.41 Theoretical Plates Required for Separation in Terms of
Boiling-Point Difference and 2.97
Table 2.42 Distillation Behavior of Binary Mixtures of Organic Compounds 2.98
Table 2.43 Azeotropic Data 2.104
Table 2.44 Vapor-Pressure Ratios of Binary Mixtures 2.109
2.4.5 Azeotropic Distillation 2.111
2.4.6 Column Designs 2.112
Figure 2.7 Packings for Fractionating Columns 2.113
Figure 2.8 Teflon Spinning Band Column 2.114
2.4.7 Total-Reflux Partial Takeoff Heads 2.114
2.4.8 Vacuum Distillation 2.114
Figure 2.9 Total-Reflux Partial-Takeoff Still Head 2.115
2.4.9 Steam Distillation 2.115
2.4.10 Molecular Distillation 2.116
2.4.11 Sublimation 2.117
2.5 CARRIER COPRECIPITATION AND CHEMICAL REDUCTION METHODS 2.117
2.5.1 Coprecipitation and Gathering 2.117
2.5.2 Reduction to the Metal 2.118
Table 2.45 Preconcentration by Coprecipitation and Gathering 2.119

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.1
3.1.1 Errors in Quantitative Analysis 3.2
3.1.2 Representation of Sets of Data 3.2
3.2 THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEASUREMENTS 3.3
Figure 3.1 The Normal Distribution Curve 3.3
Table 3.1a Ordinates (Y) of the Normal Distribution Curve at Values of z 3.5
3.3 STANDARD DEVIATION AS A MEASURE OF DISPERSION 3.5
Table 3.1b Areas Under the Normal Distribution Curve from 0 to z 3.6
3.4 THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTIONS AND TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE 3.7
3.4.1 Student’s Distribution or t Test 3.7
Table 3.2 Percentile Values for Student t Distribution 3.9
3.4.2 Hypotheses About Means 3.10
3.4.3 The Chi-Square (c2) Distribution 3.12
Table 3.3 Percentile Values for the c2 Distribution 3.13
3.4.4 The F Statistic 3.13
Table 3.4 F Distribution 3.14
3.5 CURVE FITTING 3.16
3.5.1 The Least Squares or Best-Fit Line 3.17
3.5.2 Errors in the Slope and Intercept of the Best-Fit Line 3.19
3.6 CONTROL CHARTS 3.21
3.7 CONCEPTS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAMS 3.22
3.7.1 Quality Assurance Plans 3.22
3.7.2 Quality Control 3.22
3.8 METHOD DETECTION LIMIT (MDL) 3.24
Bibliography 3.24
4.1 INORGANIC GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS 4.2
Table 4.1 Ionic Product Constant of Water 4.2
Table 4.2 Solubility Products 4.3
Table 4.3 Elements Precipitated by General Analytical Reagents 4.9
Table 4.4 Summary of the Principal Methods for the Separation
and Gravimetric Determinations of the Elements 4.11
Table 4.5 Heating Temperatures, Composition of Weighing Forms,
and Gravimetric Factors 4.22
Table 4.6 Metal 8-Hydroxyquinolates 4.24
4.2 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS IN AQUEOUS MEDIA 4.26
4.2.1 Primary Standards 4.26
Table 4.7 Compositions of Constant-Boiling Hydrochloric Acid Solutions 4.26
Table 4.8 Densities and Compositions of Hydrochloric Acid Solutions 4.27
Table 4.9 Primary Standards for Aqueous Acid–Base Titrations 4.28
4.2.2. Indicators 4.29
Table 4.10 Indicators for Aqueous Acid–Base Titrations and pH Determinations 4.29
Table 4.11 Mixed Indicators for Acid–Base Titrations 4.32
Table 4.12 Fluorescent Indicators for Acid–Base Titrations 4.33
4.2.3 Equilibrium Constants of Acids 4.35
Figure 4.1 Range of pKa Values of Dissociating Groups 4.35
Table 4.13 Selected Equilibrium Constants in Aqueous Solutions
at Various Temperatures 4.36
4.2.4 Titration Curves and Precision in Aqueous Acid–Base Titrations 4.42
4.2.5 Calculation of the Approximate pH Value of Solutions 4.47
4.2.6 Calculation of Concentrations of Species Present at a Given pH 4.47
4.2.7 Volumetric Factors for Acid–Base Titrations 4.47
4.3 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS IN NONAQUEOUS MEDIA 4.47
Table 4.14 Volumetric (Titrimetric) Factors for Acid–Base Titrations 4.48
4.3.1 Solvents 4.50
Table 4.15 Properties of Common Acid–Base Solvents 4.51
Figure 4.2 Approximate Potential Ranges in Nonaqueous Solvents 4.52
Figure 4.3 Schematic Representation of Autoprotolysis Ranges of Selected
Solvents, in Relation to the Intrinsic Strength of Certain Index Acids 4.52
4.3.2 Preparation and Standardization of Reagents 4.54
4.3.3 Acidities and Basicities of Acids and Bases in Nonaqueous Solvents 4.55
Table 4.16 pKa Values for Various Acids and Indicators in Nonaqueous Systems 4.56
4.3.4 Titration Curves in Nonaqueous Acid–Base Systems 4.57
Table 4.17 Selected Titration Methods in Nonaqueous Media 4.58
4.4 PRECIPITATION TITRATIONS 4.60
4.4.1 Titration Curves and Precision in Precipitation Titrations 4.60
Figure 4.4 Titration Curves for the Precipitation Titration X R XR 4.61
Table 4.18 Standard Solutions for Precipitation Titrations 4.62
4.4.2 Applications 4.63
4.5 OXIDATION–REDUCTION TITRATIONS 4.63
4.5.1 Titration Curves and Precision in Redox Titrations 4.63
Table 4.19 Indicators for Precipitation Titrations 4.64
Table 4.20 Titration Methods Based on Precipitation 4.66
Table 4.21 Potentials of Selected Half-Reactions at 25°C 4.68

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4.1

Reactive Chemical Hazards Sixth Edition Handbook

Contents

Volume 1
INTRODUCTION
Aims of the Handbook xi
Scope and Source Coverage xi
General Arrangement xii
Specific Chemical Entries (Volume 1) xiii
Grouping of Reactants xiv
General Group Entries (Volume 2) xv
Nomenclature xv
Cross-reference System xvii
Information Content of Individual Entries xvii
REACTIVE CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Basics xix
Kinetic Factors xix
Adiabatic Systems xxii
Reactivity vs. Composition and Structure xxii
Reaction Mixtures xxiii
Protective Measures xxiv
SPECIFIC CHEMICALS
(Elements and compounds arranged in formula order)

APPENDIX 1 Source Title Abbreviations used in Handbook
References 1927
APPENDIX 2 Tabulated Fire-related Data 1937
APPENDIX 3 Glossary of Abbreviations and Technical Terms 1947
APPENDIX 4 Index of Chemical Names and Serial Numbers used as
Titles in Volume 1 1951
APPENDIX 5 Index of CAS Registry Numbers and Text Serial
Numbers 2081

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Chemistry of Textile Finishing free download

CHAPTER 1
PREPARATION PROCESSES
CHAPTER 2
CHEMISTRY OF YARN AND
FABRIC PREPARATION
CHAPTER 3.
SCOURING
CHAPTER 4
BLEACHING
CHAPTER 5
OTHER PROCESSES
CHAPTER 6
MECHANICAL ASPECTS of
CHEMICAL FINISHING 
CHAPTER 7
DURABLE PRESS FINISHES
CHAPTER 8
HAND MODIFICATION
CHAPTER 9
REPELLENT FINISHES
CHAPTER 10
SOIL-RELEASE FINISHES
CHAPTER 11
FLAME RETARDANT FINISHES
CHAPTER 12
OTHER FINISHES
CHAPTER 13
MECHANICAL FINISHING

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Chemical Reactor Design - Peter Harriott free download

content

Preface
Appendix Diffusion Coefficients for Binary Gas Mixtures
1. Homogeneous Kinetics
Definitions and Review of Kinetics for Homogeneous Reactions
Scaleup and Design Procedures
Interpretation of Kinetic Data
Complex Kinetics
Nomenclature
Problems
References
2. Kinetic Models for Heterogeneous Reactions
Basic Steps for Solid-Catalyzed Reactions
External Mass Transfer Control
Models for Surface Reaction
Rate of Adsorption Controlling
Allowing for Two Slow Steps
Desorption Control
Changes in Catalyst Structure
Catalyst Decay
Nomenclature
Problems
References
3. Ideal Reactors
Batch Reactor Design
Continuous-Flow Reactors
Plug-Flow Reactors
Pressure Drop in Packed Beds
Nomenclature
Problems
References
4. Diffusion and Reaction in Porous Catalysts
Catalyst Structure and Properties
Random Capillary Model
Diffusion of Gases in Small Pores
Effective Diffusivity
Pore Size Distribution
Diffusion of Liquids in Catalysts
Effect of Pore Diffusion on Reaction Rate
Optimum Pore Size Distribution
Nomenclature
Problems
References
5. Heat and Mass Transfer in Reactors
Stirred-Tank Reactor
Reactor Stability
Packed-Bed Tubular Reactors
Radial Heat Transfer in Packed Beds
Alternate Models
Nomenclature
Problems
References
6. Nonideal Flow
Mixing Times
Pipeline Reactors
Packed-Bed Reactors
Nomenclature
Problems
References
7. Gas–Liquid Reactions
Consecutive Mass Transfer and Reaction
Simultaneous Mass Transfer and Reaction
Instantaneous Reaction
Penetration Theory
Gas-Film Control
Effect of Mass Transfer on Selectivity
Summary of Possible Controlling Steps
Types of Gas–Liquid Reactors
Bubble Columns
Stirred-Tank Reactors
Packed-Bed Reactors
Nomenclature
Problems
References
8. Multiphase Reactors
Slurry Reactors
Fixed-Bed Reactors
Nomenclature
Problems
References
9. Fluidized-Bed Reactors
Minimum Fluidization Velocity
Types of Fluidization
Reactor Models
The Two-Phase Model
The Interchange Parameter K
Model V: Some Reaction in Bubbles
Axial Dispersion
Selectivity
Heat Transfer
Commercial Applications
Nomenclature
Problems
References
10. Novel Reactors
Riser Reactors
Monolithic Catalysts
Wire-Screen Catalysts
Reactive Distillation
Nomenclature
Problems
References

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT free download

content

Introduction 1
I How to Use This Book 1
(A) The Case Study Approach 1
(B) A "Road Map" 2
II Some Advice 3
(A) General Advice to the Student 3
(B) Advice from a Former Design Project Student 4
(C) To the Lecturer 5
(D) The Designer or Project Engineer 7
III Presentation of Design Projects 7
(A) Effective Communications 7
(B) General Comments on Preparation of Literature Surveys 9
IV Details of Particular Design Projects, and Information Sources 14
(A) IChemE Design Projects 14
Instructions for the IChemE Design Project, 1980 16
(B) Information Sources 20
PART 1 TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY
Chapter 1 The Design Problem 27
1.1 Initial Considerations and Specification 27
1.1.1 The Feasibility Study 27
1.1.2 Time Management 28
1.1.3 Stages in a Design Problem 28
1.1.4 The Search for Information 28
1.1.5 Scope of the Project 29
1.1.6 Evaluating the Alternatives - Making Decisions 29
Some Questions to Ask for the Chemical to be Produced 30
Further Reading 30

Case Study: Production of Phthalic Anhydride 31
Overall Summary for the Technical and Economic Feasibility Study 31
1.2 Case Study - Defining the Problem and Background Information 32
Summary 32
1.2.1 Background and Objectives 32
1.2.2 Chemical Structure and Physical Properties 32
1.2.3 Applications and Uses 33
1.2.4 Basic Chemistry 33
1.2.5 Evaluation of Alternative Processing Schemes 34
1.2.6 Conclusions 35
1.2.7 Recommendations 35
Chapter 2 Feasibility Study and Market Survey 37
2.1 Initial Feasibility Study 37
2.2 Preliminary Market Survey/Economic Analysis 37
References 40
2. 3 Information Sources 40
2.4 Evaluation of Available Literature 41
2.5 Considerations for Literature Surveys 42
References 42
2.6 Case Study - Feasibility Study and Market Assessment 43
Summary 43
2.6.1 Market Assessment 43
2.6.1.1 Production: Worldwide 43
2.6.1.2 Production: Regional 44
2.6.1.3 Production: National 44
2.6.2 Current and Future Prices 45
2.6.3 Demand 45
2.6.4 Australian Imports and Exports 46
2.6.5 Plant Capacity 46
2.6.6 Product Value and Operating Costs 47
2.6.6.1 Capital Costs 47
2.6.6.2 Operating Costs 47
2.6.6.3 Approximate Selling Price 47
2.6.7 Conclusions 48
2.6.8 Recommendations 49
Chapter 3 Process Selection, Process Description and Equipment List 51
3.1 Process Selection Considerations 51
3.1.1 Flow Diagrams - PFD and P&ID 51
3.1.2 The Reactor 51
3.1.3 Product Purity 52
3.1.4 Process Conditions 52

3.1.5 Process Data 52
3.1.6 Energy Efficiency 52
3.1.7 Factors in Process Evaluation and Selection 53
3.1.8 Choices and Compromises 53
3.1.9 The Optimum Design 54
3.1.10 Process Control and Instrumentation 54
References 54
3.2 Process Description 55
3.3 Preparing the Equipment List 55
3.4 Rules of Thumb 56
3.5 Safety Considerations and Preliminary HAZOP Study 57
References 57
3.6 Case Study - Process Selection and Equipment List 58
Summary 58
3.6.1 Trends in Phthalic Anhydride Processing 58
3.6.2 Raw Material 58
3.6.3 Process Configurations 59
3.6.4 Detailed Process Description 61
3.6.5 Advantages of the LAR Process 62
3.6.6 Advantages of the LEVH Process 62
3.6.7 Process Selection 62
3.6.8 Initial Equipment Design 63
3.6.9 Equipment List 63
3.6.10 Conclusions 64
3.6.11 Recommendations 64
Appendix A: Preliminary Equipment Specifications 65
Chapter 4 Site Considerations: Site Selection and Plant Layout 69
4.1 Site Selection/ Location 69
4.1.1 Local Industrial Areas 69
4.1.2 Some Important Factors 70
4.1.3 Prioritizing the Factors 70
References 71
4.2 Plant Layout 71
4.2.1 Plant Layout Strategies 72
4.2.2 Factors Influencing Plant Layout 72
References 73
4.3 Case Study - Site Considerations: Site Selection and Plant Layout 74
Summary 74
4.3.1 Background and Objectives 74
4.3.2 Potential Sites 75
4.3.2.1 Kemerton 76
4.3.2.2 Geraldton 76

4.3.3 Preferred Site and Layout 76
4.3.4 Conclusions 80
4.3.5 Recommendations 81
Chapter 5 Environmental Considerations 83
5.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 83
5.2 General Considerations 83
5.3 EIA Policy and Scope 85
5.4 EIA Reports 86
5.5 Australia 88
5.6 United Kingdom 88
5.7 United States 89
5.8 ISO-14000 90
5.9 Legislation 90
References 91
5.10 Case Study - Environmental Considerations 92
Summary 92
5.10.1 Purpose 93
5.10.2 Airborne Emissions 93
5.10.3 Waterborne Emissions 95
5.10.4 Solid Waste 95
5.10.5 Process Hazards 96
5.10.6 Accidental Spills and Tank Breaches 96
5.10.7 Personnel Safety Precautions and Procedures 98
5.10.8 Conclusions 98
5.10.9 Recommendations 99
Chapter 6 Economic Evaluation 101
6.1 Introductory Notes 101
6.2 Capital Cost Estimation 102
6.2.1 Cost of Equipment (Major Items) 103
(I) Cost Correlations 103
(II) Factored Estimate Method 104
6.2.2 Module Costs 105
6.2.3 Auxiliary Services 105
6.3 Operating Costs - Fixed and Variable 106
6.3.1 Depreciation 108
6.4 Profitability Analysis 109
6.4.1 The Payback Period 110
6.4.2 Return on Investment (ROI) 110
6.4.3 Evaluating Different Scenarios 110
6.4.4 Economic Evaluation and Analysis 111

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Use of Descriptive Statistical Indicators for Aggregating Environmental Data in Multi-Scale European Databases

On the basis of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:

•  The multi-scale nested grids approach can be proposed as a solution in many cases

where the data owner does not allow the distribution/publication of detailed data
but is willing to distribute degraded data (in coarser resolution). The aggregation
methodology can be considered a valuable one which contributes to the
degradation (without losing the real values) of very detailed data and may allow
the scientific community to access valuable information without having any
copyright problems.

•  For a number of reasons upscaling can be useful in soil science domain: respect of

privacy and data ownership, easy adaptation to model requirements, update of spatial
databases in various scales and simplification of thematic maps.

•  Upscaling methodology has proven to be good enough for identification of “data

patterns”. The upscaling process can easily identify if soil data have been downscaled
before a possible aggregation for reporting reasons.

•  Upscaling has a serious drawback in case the source dataset in the finer scale has high

spatial variability. This has been shown in the upscaling process from 1km2 towards the
10km2. The descriptive statistics show the smooth effect that upscaling may cause in
high variability cases. Upscaling involves recognition of general pattern in data
distribution and this can be considered an advantage for environmental indicators. In
any case the upscaled output doesn’t represent the real world but it is a smooth
approximation. The upscaling from local scale to upper scales involves trade-offs and
compromises.

• Despite the limitations, the scale transfer method presented here was well-suited to

the data and satisfied the overall objective of mapping soil indicators in coarser scale
giving appropriate responses to policy makers. Moreover, a series of newly
introduced concepts/indicators such as “Non-Perfect Square” Coverage, Correlation
Coefficient for predictions and Lost of Variation can be introduced for further
research and evaluation.

•  Digital Soil Mapping (DSM) offers new opportunities for the prediction of

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