Automatic Control Systems BENJAMIN C[1] KUO




Complex-Variable Theory


Functions of a Complex Variable
Singularities and Poles of a Function
Differential and Difference Equations
Linear Ordinary Differential Equations
The state of a system
refers to the past, present,
and future of the system.

Elementary Matrix Theory and Algebra
COMPUTER-AIDED SOLUTIONS OF MATRICES
Laplace Transform Table
Operational Amplifiers
First-Order Op-Amp Configurations
Properties and Construction
of the Root Loci

Saddle Points) on the Root Loci
Frequency-Domain Plots
General Nyquist Criterion
Discrete-Data Control Systems
z-Transform Table

Askeland English version The science and engineering of materials


Askeland English version The science and engineering of materials free download

Callister Materials Science and Engineering free download










MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering
into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Strictly
speaking, “materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, “materials engineering”
is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering
the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.2
From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize
new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new
products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing
materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both
materials scientists and materials engineers.
“Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In
brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and
interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization
of atoms or molecules relative to one another.The next larger structural
realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together,
is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct observation
using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”
The notion of “property” deserves elaboration.While in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example,
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal
surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude
of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties
are made independent of material shape and size.
Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples
include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical
conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior
of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of
a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation;
index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally,
deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.The chapters
that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six classifications.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are
involved in the science and engineering of materials—namely, “processing” and
“performance.”With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure
of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance
will be a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between
processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic
illustration shown in Figure 1.1. Throughout this text we draw attention to the
contents

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii
1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5
1.4 Classification of Materials 5
1.5 Advanced Materials 11
1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 12
References 13
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15
Learning Objectives 16
2.1 Introduction 16
ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16
2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17
2.4 The Periodic Table 23
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30
2.8 Molecules 32
Summary 34
Important Terms and Concepts 34
References 35
Questions and Problems 35
3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 38
Learning Objectives 39
3.1 Introduction 39
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 39
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39
3.3 Unit Cells 40
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41
3.5 Density Computations 45
3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46
3.7 Crystal Systems 46
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND
PLANES 49
3.8 Point Coordinates 49
3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51
3.10 Crystallographic Planes 55
3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 60
3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE
MATERIALS 63
3.13 Single Crystals 63
3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64
3.15 Anisotropy 64
3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of
Crystal Structures 66
3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71
Summary 72
Important Terms and Concepts 73
References 73
Questions and Problems 74
4. Imperfections in Solids 80
Learning Objectives 81
4.1 Introduction 81
POINT DEFECTS 81
4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81
4.3 Impurities in Solids 83
4.4 Specification of Composition 85
MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 88
4.5 Dislocations–Linear Defects 88
4.6 Interfacial Defects 92
4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 96
4.8 Atomic Vibrations 96
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 97
4.9 General 97
4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98
4.11 Grain Size Determination 102
Summary 104
Important Terms and Concepts 105
References 105
Questions and Problems 106
Design Problems 108
5. Diffusion 109
Learning Objectives 110
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 111
5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112
5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114
5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118
5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125
Summary 125
Important Terms and Concepts 126
References 126
Questions and Problems 126
Design Problems 129
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131
Learning Objectives 132
6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133
ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137
6.4 Anelasticity 140
6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141
PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143
6.6 Tensile Properties 144
6.7 True Stress and Strain 151
6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic
Deformation 154
6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional
Deformation 154
6.10 Hardness 155
PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY
FACTORS 161
6.11 Variability of Material Properties 161
6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163
Summary 165
Important Terms and Concepts 166
References 166
Questions and Problems 166
Design Problems 172
7. Dislocations and Strengthening
Mechanisms 174
Learning Objectives 175
7.1 Introduction 175
DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC
DEFORMATION 175
7.2 Basic Concepts 175
7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178
7.4 Slip Systems 179
7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 181
7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline
Materials 185
7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185
7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size
Reduction 188
7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190
7.10 Strain Hardening 191
RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN
GROWTH 194
7.11 Recovery 195
7.12 Recrystallization 195
7.13 Grain Growth 200
Summary 201
Important Terms and Concepts 202
References 202
Questions and Problems 202
Design Problems 206
8. Failure 207
Learning Objectives 208
8.1 Introduction 208
FRACTURE 208
8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 208
8.3 Ductile Fracture 209
8.4 Brittle Fracture 211
8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215
8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223
FATIGUE 227
8.7 Cyclic Stresses 228
8.8 The S–N Curve 229
8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232
8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234
8.11 Environmental Effects 237
CREEP 238
8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238
8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239
8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241
8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature
Use 242
Summary 243
Important Terms and Concepts 245
References 246
Questions and Problems 246
Design Problems 250
9. Phase Diagrams 252
Learning Objectives 253
9.1 Introduction 253
DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 253
Contents • xvii
9.2 Solubility Limit 254
9.3 Phases 254
9.4 Microstructure 255
9.5 Phase Equilibria 255
9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase
Diagrams 256
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258
9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 258
9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260
9.9 Development of Microstructure in
Isomorphous Alloys 264
9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous
Alloys 268
9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269
9.12 Development of Microstructure in
Eutectic Alloys 276
9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having
Intermediate Phases or
Compounds 282
9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284
9.15 Congruent Phase
Transformations 286
9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase
Diagrams 287
9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287
THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 290
9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase
Diagram 290
9.19 Development of Microstructure in
Iron–Carbon Alloys 293
9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying
Elements 301
Summary 302
Important Terms and Concepts 303
References 303
Questions and Problems 304
10. Phase Transformations in Metals:
Development of Microstructure
and Alteration of Mechanical
Properties 311
Learning Objectives 312
10.1 Introduction 312
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312
10.2 Basic Concepts 312
10.3 The Kinetics of Phase
Transformations 313
10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium
States 324
10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 325
10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation
Diagrams 335
10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon
Alloys 339
10.8 Tempered Martensite 343
10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and
Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon
Alloys 346
Summary 350
Important Terms and Concepts 351
References 352
Questions and Problems 352
Design Problems 356
11. Applications and Processing of
Metal Alloys 358
Learning Objectives 359
11.1 Introduction 359
TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 359
11.2 Ferrous Alloys 359
11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 372
FABRICATION OF METALS 382
11.4 Forming Operations 383
11.5 Casting 384
11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 386
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 387
11.7 Annealing Processes 388
11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels 390
11.9 Precipitation Hardening 402
Summary 407
Important Terms and Concepts 409
References 409
Questions and Problems 410
Design Problems 411
12. Structures and Properties of
Ceramics 414
Learning Objectives 415
12.1 Introduction 415
CERAMIC STRUCTURES 415
12.2 Crystal Structures 415
12.3 Silicate Ceramics 426
12.4 Carbon 430
12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 434
12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 438
12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 442
12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442
12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 447
12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic
Deformation 449
12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical
Considerations 451
Summary 453
Important Terms and Concepts 454
References 454
Questions and Problems 455
Design Problems 459
13. Applications and Processing of
Ceramics 460
Learning Objectives 461
13.1 Introduction 461
TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF
CERAMICS 461
13.2 Glasses 461
13.3 Glass–Ceramics 462
13.4 Clay Products 463
13.5 Refractories 464
13.6 Abrasives 466
13.7 Cements 467
13.8 Advanced Ceramics 468
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF
CERAMICS 471
13.9 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses
and Glass–Ceramics 471
13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay
Products 476
13.11 Powder Pressing 481
13.12 Tape Casting 484
Summary 484
Important Terms and Concepts 486
References 486
Questions and Problems 486
Design Problem 488
14. Polymer Structures 489
Learning Objectives 490
14.1 Introduction 490
14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490
14.3 Polymer Molecules 492
14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer
Molecules 493
14.5 Molecular Weight 497
14.6 Molecular Shape 500
14.7 Molecular Structure 501
14.8 Molecular Configurations 503
14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
Polymers 506
14.10 Copolymers 507
14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 508
14.12 Polymer Crystals 512
14.13 Defects in Polymers 514
14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515
Summary 517
Important Terms and Concepts 519
References 519
Questions and Problems 519
15. Characteristics, Applications, and
Processing of Polymers 523
Learning Objectives 524
15.1 Introduction 524
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 524
15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 524
15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 527
15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 527
15.5 Fracture of Polymers 532
15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical
Characteristics 533
MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR
STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535
15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline
Polymers 535
15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical
Properties of Semicrystalline
Polymers 538
15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 541
CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS
TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544
15.10 Crystallization 544
15.11 Melting 545
15.12 The Glass Transition 545
15.13 Melting and Glass Transition
Temperatures 546
15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass
Transition Temperatures 547
POLYMER TYPES 549
15.15 Plastics 549
15.16 Elastomers 552
15.17 Fibers 554
15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 555
15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 560
15.20 Polymerization 561
15.21 Polymer Additives 563
15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565
15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 567
15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 568
Summary 569
Important Terms and Concepts 571
References 571
Questions and Problems 572
Design Questions 576
16. Composites 577
Learning Objectives 578
16.1 Introduction 578
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 580
16.2 Large-Particle Composites 580
16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened
Composites 584
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 585
16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 585
16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and
Concentration 586
16.6 The Fiber Phase 595
16.7 The Matrix Phase 596
16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597
16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 603
16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605
16.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 606
16.12 Hybrid Composites 607
16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced
Composites 607
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 610
16.14 Laminar Composites 610
16.15 Sandwich Panels 611
Summary 613
Important Terms and Concepts 615
References 616
Questions and Problems 616
Design Problems 619
17. Corrosion and Degradation of
Materials 621
Learning Objectives 622
17.1 Introduction 622
CORROSION OF METALS 622
17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 623
17.3 Corrosion Rates 630
17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 631
17.5 Passivity 638
17.6 Environmental Effects 640
17.7 Forms of Corrosion 640
17.8 Corrosion Environments 648
17.9 Corrosion Prevention 649
17.10 Oxidation 651
CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 654
DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 655
17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 655
17.12 Bond Rupture 657
17.13 Weathering 658
Summary 659
Important Terms and Concepts 660
References 661
Questions and Problems 661
Design Problems 644
18. Electrical Properties 665
Learning Objectives 666
18.1 Introduction 666
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 666
18.2 Ohm’s Law 666
18.3 Electrical Conductivity 667
18.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 668
18.5 Energy Band Structures in
Solids 668
18.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and
Atomic Bonding Models 671
18.7 Electron Mobility 673
18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 674
18.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial
Alloys 677
SEMICONDUCTIVITY 679
18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 679
18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 682
18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier
Concentration 686
18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 688
18.14 The Hall Effect 692
18.15 Semiconductor Devices 694
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS
AND IN POLYMERS 700
18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 701
18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 701
DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 702
18.18 Capacitance 703
18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 704
18.20 Types of Polarization 708
18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric
Constant 709
18.22 Dielectric Strength 711
18.23 Dielectric Materials 711
OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATERIALS 711
18.24 Ferroelectricity 711
18.25 Piezoelectricity 712
Summary 713
Important Terms and Concepts 715
References 715
Questions and Problems 716
Design Problems 720
19. Thermal Properties W1
Learning Objectives W2
19.1 Introduction W2
19.2 Heat Capacity W2
19.3 Thermal Expansion W4
19.4 Thermal Conductivity W7
19.5 Thermal Stresses W12
Summary W14
Important Terms and Concepts W15
References W15
Questions and Problems W15
Design Problems W17
20. Magnetic Properties W19
Learning Objectives W20
20.1 Introduction W20
20.2 Basic Concepts W20
20.3 Diamagnetism and
Paramagnetism W24
20.4 Ferromagnetism W26
20.5 Antiferromagnetism and
Ferrimagnetism W28
20.6 The Influence of Temperature on
Magnetic Behavior W32
20.7 Domains and Hysteresis W33
20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy W37
20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials W38
20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials W41
20.11 Magnetic Storage W44
20.12 Superconductivity W47
Summary W50
Important Terms and Concepts W52
References W52
Questions and Problems W53
Design Problems W56
21. Optical Properties W57
Learning Objectives W58
21.1 Introduction W58
BASIC CONCEPTS W58
21.2 Electromagnetic Radiation W58
21.3 Light Interactions with Solids W60
21.4 Atomic and Electronic
Interactions W61
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS W62
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS W63
21.5 Refraction W63
21.6 Reflection W65
21.7 Absorption W65
21.8 Transmission W68
21.9 Color W69
21.10 Opacity and Translucency in
Insulators W71
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA W72
21.11 Luminescence W72
21.12 Photoconductivity W72
21.13 Lasers W75
21.14 Optical Fibers in Communications W79
Summary W82
Important Terms and Concepts W83
References W84
Questions and Problems W84
Design Problem W85
22. Materials Selection and Design
Considerations W86
Learning Objectives W87
22.1 Introduction W87
MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY
STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT W87
22.2 Strength Considerations–Torsionally
Stressed Shaft W88
22.3 Other Property Considerations and the
Final Decision W93
AUTOMOTIVE VALVE SPRING W94
22.4 Mechanics of Spring Deformation W94
22.5 Valve Spring Design and Material
Requirements W95
22.6 One Commonly Employed Steel
Alloy W98
FAILURE OF AN AUTOMOBILE REAR
AXLE W101
22.7 Introduction W101
22.8 Testing Procedure and Results W102
22.9 Discussion W108
ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT W108
22.10 Anatomy of the Hip Joint W108
22.11 Material Requirements W111
22.12 Materials Employed W112
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING W115
22.13 Introduction W115
22.14 Assessment of CPC Glove Materials to
Protect Against Exposure to Methylene
Chloride W115
MATERIALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
PACKAGES W119
22.15 Introduction W119
22.16 Leadframe Design and Materials W120
22.17 Die Bonding W121
22.18 Wire Bonding W124
22.19 Package Encapsulation W125
22.20 Tape Automated Bonding W127
Summary W129
References W130
Design Questions and Problems W131
23. Economic, Environmental, and
Societal Issues in Materials Science
and Engineering W135
Learning Objectives W136
23.1 Introduction W136
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS W136
23.2 Component Design W137
23.3 Materials W137
23.4 Manufacturing Techniques W137
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL
CONSIDERATIONS W137
23.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and
Engineering W140
Summary W143
References W143
Design Question W144
Appendix A The International System of
Units A1
Appendix B Properties of Selected
Engineering Materials A3
B.1 Density A3
B.2 Modulus of Elasticity A6
B.3 Poisson’s Ratio A10

Geological Procedures Workbook free download







Instructions On Project Completion
The aim of this workbook project is to provide you with the information on
various formation evaluation topics that can best be studied outside a
classroom. It is not the intention of the Training Department that you complete
all the assignments as soon as possible. This workbook project should allow
you to spend enough time on each particular subject in order to thoroughly
understand those aspects of geologic evaluation and interpretation as they
apply to every day wellsite operations. This workbook includes:
• Sedimentary Petrology
• Sedimentary Structures
• Sedimentary Environments
• Reservoir Geology
• Wireline/MWD Logs in Formation Evaluation
• Introduction to Seismic Surveying
• Introduction to Geochemistry
• Introduction to Well Testing
At the end of each chapter there will be “Self-Check” exercises, which are
designed to assist you in understanding the information covered in the chapter.
Do not proceed until you are confident that you fully understand the concepts,
calculations, and applications of the chapter's subject matter. Direct any
questions you may have to the Training Department.
When you have completed the workbook assignments, there will be several
“Return” assignments. These are to be completed and returned to the regional/
area Training Department. Using these assignments, the Training Department
will be able to assist you in the next step in completing the module
requirements. It is in your best interest to stay in contact with your Training
Department.
This workbook is designed to review those aspects of sedimentary geology that
are unique to the oil industry and to increase your knowledge and
understanding of formation evaluation using those geologic principles.
There is a lot to learn, and remember, the learning process will never end.
There are no real shortcuts. You will be required to learn for yourself, with
guidance and assistance from experienced field personnel and the Training
Department.






Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Sedimentary Petrology
Additional Review/Reading Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Chapter 1
Sedimentary Petrology
Clastic Petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Sediment Texture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Components of Siliclastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Classification and Petrography of Sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Porosity and Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Mudrocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Carbonate Petrology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Components of Limestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Ooids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Coated Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Peloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Intraclasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Micrite Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Stromatolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Oncolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Classification of Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Carbonate Cementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16
Dolomitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Porosity in Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Evaporites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22
Chicken Wire Anhydrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22
Enterolithic Anhydrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
Sabka Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
Laminated Anhydrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23

Aphanitic Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
Evaporite Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-23
Ironstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Color Of Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Standardization of Color Descriptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-24
Colors and Sedimentary Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25
Oxidation State of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25
Carbonaceous Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26
Colored Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-26
Color Patterns in Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-27
Self-Check Exercises: Sedimentary Petrology
Chapter 2
Sedimentary Structures
Chapter 2
Sedimentary Structures
Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Primary Bedding Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Planar Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Tabular Cross Lamination/Bedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Trough Cross Lamination/Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Lenticular/Flaser Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Climbing Ripple Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Synaresis Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Desiccation Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Post Depositional Deformed Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
String Convolute Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Load Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Flame Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Ball and Pillow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Dish and Pillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Erosional Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Flute Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Groove Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Impact Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Gutter Casts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Sole Marks in Cores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Bio-genic Sedimentary Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

Facies And Facies Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Facies Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Walther's Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Continental Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Alluvial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Braided Stream Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Meandering River Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Eolian Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Barrier Island And Near Shore Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Deltaic Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Alluvial Sediments and The Sediment Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Delta Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Fluvial Dominated Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Tide Dominated Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Wave Dominated Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Recognition of Ancient Delta Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Growth Faults in Alluvially Dominated Deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Case Studies - Deltaic Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Submarine Fans And Turbidites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Morphology of the Depositional System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
Lithology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
Exploration Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25
Carbonate Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
Environmental Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26
Lithologies and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
Chapter 3
Self-Check Exercises:
Sedimentary Environments
Chapter 4
Reservoir Geology
Chapter 4
Reservoir Geology
Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Reservoir Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Reservoir Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Chemical Composition of Crude Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Physical Properties of Crude Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Reservoir Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Classification of Reservoir Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Water Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
The Trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Anticlinal Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Fault Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Stratigraphic Traps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
Natural Drive Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Gas Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Water Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Combination Drives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Reservoir Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Isochron Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Depth Structure Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Isopach and Isochore Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
Chapter 4
Self-Check Exercises:
Reservoir Geology
Chapter 5
Wireline/MWD Logs In Formation Evaluation
Chapter 5
Wireline/MWD Logs In Formation Evaluation
Basic Logging Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Spontaneous Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Gamma Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Density Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Acoustic/Sonic Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Neutron Log. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Formation Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
The Spontaneous Potential Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Short-Spaced Resistivity Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Micro-Resistivity Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Gamma Ray Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Lithology Determination Using Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Combination Gamma Ray Neutron-Density Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Porosity Log Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Complex Lithology Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Shale Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
Facies And Depositional Environment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
The SP Curve and Geologic Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
The Gamma Ray Curve and Geologic Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Geometry of the SP and GR Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
Cautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
Formation Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Acoustic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Elastic Constants From Well Log Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Fracture Detection From Well Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
Acoustic/Sonic Log Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
Caliper Log Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Density Log Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Resistivity Log Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Litho-Density Log Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Dipmeter Log Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Review of Fracture Detection Using Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Chapter 5
Self-Check Exercises:
Wireline/MWD Logs In Formation Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Chapter 6
Introduction To Seismic Surveying
Chapter 6
Introduction To Seismic Surveying
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
The Seismic Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Array Preparation and Signal Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
Recording Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Shot-Hole Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
The Seismic Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
The Seismic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Mapping With Seismic Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
The Correlation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-15
Contouring The Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
Identifying Seismic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
Artificial Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
Anticlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
Ancient Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Fault Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
The Nightmare of Diapirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
What Is The Overall Geologic Picture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Deposition Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25
Chapter 6
Self-Check Exercises:
Introduction To Seismic Surveying
Chapter 7
Introduction To Geochemistry
Chapter 7
Introduction To Geochemistry
Sources Of Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Depositional Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Kerogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Stages Of Petroleum Maturation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Diagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Catagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9

Coring Handbook free download





Baker Hughes INTEQ

Introduction to Coring
Through coring, Engineers, Geologists
and Petrophysicists gain access to
reservoir information that can be
gathered in no other way. Data on the
formation’s lithology, flow
characteristics, storage capacity and
production potential are just a few of the
valuable types of information that can be
obtained by a successful coring program.
This chapter discusses what coring is and
the benefits associated with the process.
It also describes how to plan a successful
coring project and the BHI coring
services that are available.

Coring Definition
Coring is the removal of sample formation material from a
wellbore. To the extent possible, core samples are taken in
an undamaged, physically unaltered state. The formation
material may be solid rock, friable rock, conglomerates,
unconsolidated sands, coal, shales, gumbos, or clays.
Coring can be conducted by various methods with a variety
of tools. But in the oilfield, coring is generally
accomplished by two methods:
• Full Hole Coring: Core material ranging in
diameter from 1¾" to 5¼" is recovered inside of a
core barrel in vertical, deviated, horizontal, or
sidetracked wells. Depending upon the coring
system employed, the core can be recovered in
preserved or unpreserved states, and can be used for
a wide range of analytical applications. Baker
Hughes INTEQ offers a complete range of full-hole
coring services.
• Sidewall Coring: Cylindrical plug-shaped samples,
generally 1" in diameter, are recovered from the
walls of the wellbore by percussion or rotary coring
techniques. This sampling takes place in the first
few inches of the wellbore wall in regions that
generally are invaded by drilling fluid filtrates. The
resulting samples are unpreserved and frequently
are damaged by the recovery procedure. Sidewall
core plugs are of limited use from an analytical
standpoint. Baker Hughes INTEQ does not offer
sidewall coring services.



Table of Contents
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Introduction to Coring
Coring Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
The Purpose of Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Geological Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Completion Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Engineering Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Planning the Successful Coring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Coring Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Conversion Factors and Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Chapter 2
Coring Systems
High Torque HT Series Core Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
HT Series™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
HT Series Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Coremaster™ Series Core Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Coremaster Features & Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Conventional 250P Core Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
250P Series Core Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
250P Core Barrel Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
350P Slimhole Core Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
350P Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
350P Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Hydro-Lift™ Full Closure Catcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Tool Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Hydro-Lift Features & Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17



Core Barrel HT-Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-18
Core Barrel 250P / 350P Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . .2-19
CoreDrill™ Coring-While-Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-24
CoreDrill Model 1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-26
CoreDrill Features/Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-26
CoreDrill Navi-Gamma Tool (Model 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-27
Motor Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-28
Drop Ball Sub and Downhole Activated Flow Diverter . .2-29
Integral Coring Motor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-30
Modular Coring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-32
Horizontal Coring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-35
Long Radius Coring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-35
Medium Radius Coring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-35
Oriented Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-36
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-37
Survey Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-38
Electronic Magnetic Survey Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-38
Positive Latch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-40
Modular Magnetic Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-41
MMT Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-42
CoreGard™ Low Invasion Coring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-44
Filtrate Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-44
Bit Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-45
Inner Tube Pilot Shoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-46
CoreGard Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-46
Drilling Fluids Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-47
Drilling Fluids Bridging Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-47
Tracers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-48
ISOTAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-48
DFE-1503 Water-Base Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-49
DFE-432 Oil-Based Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-51
Tracers for Water-Base Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-53
Chemical Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-54
Stable Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-54
Radioactive Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-54
Tracers for Oil-Base Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-55
Gel CoringSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-57
Gel Coring Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-59



In Situ Data Gathering Pressure Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
IDGS Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63
IDGS Equipment Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64
Service Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
HTHP (High Temperature High Pressure) Coring . . . . . . . . . 2-67
So Coring – Reservoir Characterization Coring . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
So Coring Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
So Coring Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-69
Underbalanced Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-70
Coiled Tubing Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-71
Chapter 3
Inner Barrel Components
Bottomhole Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Inner Coring Barrels and Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Steel Inner Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Aluminum Inner Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Fiberglass Inner Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Plastic Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Disposable Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Inner Tube-to-Rock Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
JamBuster™ Anti-Jamming Coring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
JamBuster Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Long Distance Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Core Jam Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Drop Ball Subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Side Entry Drop Ball Sub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Downhole Activated Flow Diverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Pressure Venting Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Standard Pressure Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Spring-Loaded Pressure Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Inner Tube Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17



Chapter 4
Coring Bits
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-1
PDC (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact) Bits . . . . . . . . .4-2
Anti-Whirl™ PDC Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-4
PDC Cutter Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-6
Gold Series Cutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-6
Black Diamond™ Cutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-8
Engineering Cutter Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-8
Natural Diamond Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-11
Impregnated (Synthetic Diamond) Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-11
Core Bit Selection Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-12
PDC Coring Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-13
Ballaset® Core Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-14
Natural Diamond Core Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-14
Chapter 5
Coring Procedures
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1
Major Core Barrel Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1
Other Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-3
Coring System Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-4
Outer Barrel Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-4
Core Barrels Shorter than Derrick Height . . . . . . . . .5-4
Core Barrels Longer than Derrick Height . . . . . . . . .5-7
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-8
Standard Barrel Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-8
Loading Inner Barrels/Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-12
Procedures for Fiberglass & Aluminum Barrels . . . . . . .5-12
Inner Tube Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-13
Shims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-14
Long Distance Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-16
Procedures for Plastic Liners or Inner Tubes . . . . . . . . . .5-17
Plastic Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-17



Running Plastic Liners w/ 250P Series Core Barrel . 5-17
Loading 30-ft Core Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18
Unloading 30-ft Core Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
Loading 60-ft Core Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
Unloading 60-ft Core Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
Coring with Plastic Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
General Coring Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Check Points Before Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Running in Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Conditioning Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Dropping Ball to Start Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Rotary Rig Connection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Top Drive Connection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30
Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
Annular Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
Circulation Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
Coring with Lost Circulation Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
Rotary Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
Weight on Bit (WOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
Feeding Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
Standpipe Pressure Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
Breaking Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
Jamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
Pulling-Out-Of-Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
Conventional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
Vented Inner Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Breaking Out of Outer and Inner Barrels . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Retrieving Drop Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Normal Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Lay Down/Cutting of Inner Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-39
Outer Barrel Breakdown Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-42
Back-off of Safety Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-43
Procedure Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45
Retrieval of Inner Barrel when Core Barrel Safety Joint has
Backed Off and Outer Barrel is Left in Hole . . . . 5-46
Check/Change-Out Core Bit on Multi-Section Barrels . . 5-47
Makeup of Barrel After Bit Check/Replacement . . . . 5-48
Motor Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-49



JamBuster Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-50
Shear Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-50
Set-Up Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-50
Jam Indicator Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-53
Fishing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-53
Hydro-Lift Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-54
Hydro-Lift Make Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-54
Hydro-Lift Coring Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-57
High Pressure Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-61
Pressure Relief Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-61
Pulling Out Of Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-61
Procedure 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-62
Procedure 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-62
Core Barrel Maintenance (On-Site) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-63
Safety – H2S Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-64
Wellsite Core Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-65
GammaTrak Surface Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-65
Wellsite Core Evaluation Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-66
Core Stabilization/Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-69
Conventional Core Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-69
Stabilized Core Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-69
Basic Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-72
Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-73
Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-74
Chapter 6
Coring Fishing Diagrams
250P Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-2
HT Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-7
CoreDrill Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-10
Appendix A
Conversion Factors & Physical Constants
Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
Gas Constants (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
Acceleration of Gravity (Standard) . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
Velocity of Sound in Dry Air @ 0°C and 1 ATM . . . A-44
Heat of Fusion of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44

Heat of Vaporization of Water 1.0 ATM . . . . . . . . . A-44
Specific Heat of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
Density of Dry Air @ 0°C and 760 mm . . . . . . . . . A-44
Appendix B
Tables and Charts
Table B-1 HT Series Outer Barrel Mechanical Properties . . . B-1
Table B-2 Coremaster Series Outer Barrel Mech. Properties B-1
Table B-3 250P Series Outer Barrel Mechanical Properties . B-2
Table B-4 250P/350P/HT Series Inner Tube Mech. Properties B-3
Table B-5 Aluminum Inner Tube (IT) Specifications . . . . . . B-5
Table B-6 Aluminum Inner Tube Properties (6061-T6) . . . . B-5
Table B-7 Spacing of Aluminum Inner Tubes Based on
Thermal Expansion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
Table B-8 Spacing of Fiberglass Inner Tubes Based on
Thermal Expansion Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-7
Table B-9 Inner Tube Relative Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . B-8
Table B-10 Fiberglass Inner Tube Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . B-9
Table B-11 Fiberglass Inner Tube Specifications . . . . . . . . . B-9
Table B-12 Fiberglass Inner Tube Critical Buckling Pressure B-10
Table B-13 Fiberglass Inner Tube Axial Tensile Strength . . B-10
Table B-14 L.D. Adjustment System Calculation . . . . . . . . B-11
Table B-15 Possible Causes for Standpipe Pressure Changes B-12
Table B-16 Drillstring Connection Conversion . . . . . . . . . . B-13
Table B-17 API Reg. Pin Connections by Bit Size . . . . . . . B-14
Table B-18 Drill Collar Weights (lbs/ft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-14
Table B-19 Duplex Pump Capacities* (gallons/stroke) . . . . B-15
Table B-20 Triplex Pump Capacities* (gallons/stroke) . . . . B-16
Table B-21 Drill Collar Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-17
Table B-22 Casing Drift Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-18
Table B-23 Tubing Drift Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-21
Table B-24 Fluid Density and Pressure Gradients . . . . . . . . B-22
Table B-25 Inch to Metric Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-23
Table B-26 Fraction Conversion Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-24
Table B-27 Core Barrel Pressure Drop Calculations . . . . . . B-25

Roberge Pierre R Handbook of Corrosion Engineering




Roberge Pierre R  Handbook of Corrosion Engineering
Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its
environment. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have
become a problem of worldwide significance. In addition to our everyday
encounters with this form of degradation, corrosion causes plant
shutdowns, waste of valuable resources, loss or contamination of product,
reduction in efficiency, costly maintenance, and expensive overdesign;
it also jeopardizes safety and inhibits technological progress.
The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the
distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only
increase the complexity of the subject. Corrosion control is achieved by
recognizing and understanding corrosion mechanisms, by using corrosion-
resistant materials and designs, and by using protective systems,
devices, and treatments. Major corporations, industries, and government
agencies have established groups and committees to look after
corrosion-related issues, but in many cases the responsibilities are
spread between the manufacturers or producers of systems and their
users. Such a situation can easily breed negligence and be quite costly
in terms of dollars and human lives.

Kermit Sigmon functions matlab free download


Kermit Sigmon functions matlab free download
 

Essential MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists free download





Essential MATLAB® for Engineers and Scientists
Third edition
Brian D. Hahn and daniel T. Valentine



PART I ESSENTIALS 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Using MATLAB 4
1.2 The MATLAB desktop 15
1.3 Sample program 16
1.3.1 Cut and paste 16
1.3.2 Saving a program: script files 19
1.3.3 How a program works 21
2 MATLAB fundamentals 24
2.1 Variables and the workspace 24
2.1.1 Variables 24
2.1.2 Case sensitivity 25
2.1.3 The workspace 25
2.1.4 Adding commonly used constants to the workspace 27
2.2 Arrays: vectors and matrices 27
2.2.1 Initializing vectors: explicit lists 28
2.2.2 Initializing vectors: the colon operator 29
2.2.3 linspace 30
2.2.4 Transposing vectors 30
2.2.5 Subscripts 31
2.2.6 Matrices 31
2.2.7 Capturing output 32
2.3 Vertical motion under gravity 33
2.4 Operators, expressions and statements 35
2.4.1 Numbers 35
2.4.2 Data types 36
2.4.3 Arithmetic operators 37
2.4.4 Precedence of operators 37
2.4.5 The colon operator 38
2.4.6 The transpose operator 39
2.4.7 Arithmetic operations on arrays 39
2.4.8 Expressions 41
2.4.9 Statements 41
2.4.10 Statements, commands and functions 43
2.4.11 Vectorization of formulae 43
2.5 Output 47
2.5.1 disp 47
2.5.2 format 49
2.5.3 Scale factors 50
2.6 Repeating with for 51
2.6.1 Square roots with Newton’s method 51
2.6.2 Factorials! 53
2.6.3 Limit of a sequence 53
2.6.4 The basic for construct 54
2.6.5 for in a single line 56
2.6.6 More general for 56
2.6.7 Avoid for loops by vectorizing! 56
2.6.8 A common mistake: for less loops! 59
2.7 Decisions 60
2.7.1 The one-line if statement 60
2.7.2 The if-else construct 62
2.7.3 The one-line if-else statement 63
2.7.4 elseif 64
2.7.5 Logical operators 65
2.7.6 Multiple ifs versus elseif 65
2.7.7 Nested ifs 67
2.7.8 Vectorizing ifs? 68
2.7.9 switch 68
2.8 Complex numbers 69
2.9 More on input and output 71
2.9.1 fprintf 71
2.9.2 Output to a disk file with fprintf 73
2.9.3 General file I/O 73
2.9.4 Saving and loading data 73
2.10 Odds ’n ends 73
2.10.1 Variables, functions and scripts with the same name 73
2.10.2 The input statement 74
2.10.3 Shelling out to the operating system 75
2.10.4 More Help functions 76
2.11 Programming style 76
3 Program design and algorithm development 86
3.1 Computer program design process 87
3.1.1 Projectile problem example 89
3.2 Other examples of structure plans 98
3.2.1 Quadratic equation 99
3.3 Structured programming with functions 100
4 MATLAB functions & *data import-export utilities 104
4.1 Some common functions 105
4.2 *Importing and exporting data 110
4.2.1 The load and save commands 110
4.2.2 Exporting text (ASCII) data 110
4.2.3 Importing text (ASCII) data 111
4.2.4 Exporting binary data 111
4.2.5 The Import Wizard 112
4.2.6 Low-level file I/O functions 113
4.2.7 Other import/export functions 118
5 Logical vectors 121
5.1 Examples 122
5.1.1 Discontinuous graphs 122
5.1.2 Avoiding division by zero 123
5.1.3 Avoiding infinity 125
5.1.4 Counting random numbers 126
5.1.5 Rolling dice 127
5.2 Logical operators 127
5.2.1 Operator precedence 129
5.2.2 Danger 130
5.2.3 Logical operators and vectors 130
5.3 Subscripting with logical vectors 131
5.4 Logical functions 133
5.4.1 Using any and all 134
5.5 Logical vectors instead of elseif ladders 135
6 Matrices of numbers & arrays of strings 141
6.1 Matrices 142
6.1.1 A concrete example 142
6.1.2 Creating matrices 143
6.1.3 Subscripts 144
6.1.4 Transpose 144
6.1.5 The colon operator 144
6.1.6 Duplicating rows and columns: tiling 148
6.1.7 Deleting rows and columns 148
6.1.8 Elementary matrices 149
6.1.9 *Specialized matrices 150
6.1.10 Using MATLAB functions with matrices 151
6.1.11 Manipulating matrices 152

6.1.12 Array (element-by-element) operations on matrices 153
6.1.13 Matrices and for 153
6.1.14 Visualization of matrices 154
6.1.15 Vectorizing nested fors: loan repayment tables 154
6.1.16 Multidimensional arrays 156
6.2 Matrix operations 157
6.2.1 Matrix multiplication 157
6.2.2 Matrix exponentiation 159
6.3 Other matrix functions 160
6.4 *Strings 160
6.4.1 Assignment 160
6.4.2 Input 160
6.4.3 Strings are arrays 161
6.4.4 Concatenation of strings 161
6.4.5 ASCII codes, double and char 162
6.4.6 fprintf of strings 163
6.4.7 Comparing strings 163
6.4.8 Other string functions 164
6.5 *Two-dimensional strings 164
6.6 *eval and text macros 165
6.6.1 Error trapping with eval and lasterr 166
6.6.2 eval with try...catch 167
7 Introduction to graphics 171
7.1 Basic 2-D graphs 171
7.1.1 Labels 173
7.1.2 Multiple plots on the same axes 173
7.1.3 Line styles, markers and color 174
7.1.4 Axis limits 175
7.1.5 Multiple plots in a figure: subplot 176
7.1.6 figure, clf and cla 178
7.1.7 Graphical input 178
7.1.8 Logarithmic plots 178
7.1.9 Polar plots 179
7.1.10 Plotting rapidly changing mathematical functions: fplot 180
7.1.11 The property editor 181
7.2 3-D plots 181
7.2.1 plot3 182
7.2.2 Animated 3-D plots with comet3 183
7.2.3 Mesh surfaces 183
7.2.4 Contour plots 186
7.2.5 Cropping a surface with NaNs 187
7.2.6 Visualizing vector fields 188
7.2.7 Visualization of matrices 189

7.2.8 Rotation of 3-D graphs 190
7.2.9 Other cool graphics functions 192
8 Loops 205
8.1 Determinate repetition with for 205
8.1.1 Binomial coefficient 205
8.1.2 Update processes 206
8.1.3 Nested fors 208
8.2 Indeterminate repetition with while 208
8.2.1 A guessing game 208
8.2.2 The while statement 209
8.2.3 Doubling time of an investment 210
8.2.4 Prime numbers 211
8.2.5 Projectile trajectory 212
8.2.6 break and continue 215
8.2.7 Menus 215
9 Errors and pitfalls 222
9.1 Syntax errors 222
9.1.1 lasterr 225
9.2 Pitfalls and surprises 225
9.2.1 Incompatible vector sizes 225
9.2.2 Name hiding 225
9.2.3 Other pitfalls for the unwary 226
9.3 Errors in logic 226
9.4 Rounding error 226
9.5 Trapping and generating errors 228
10 Function M-files 230
10.1 Some examples 230
10.1.1 Inline objects: harmonic oscillators 230
10.1.2 Function M-files: Newton’s method again 232
10.2 Basic rules 233
10.2.1 Subfunctions 239
10.2.2 Private functions 239
10.2.3 P-code files 239
10.2.4 Improving M-file performance with the profiler 240
10.3 Function handles 240
10.4 Command/function duality 242
10.5 Function name resolution 243
10.6 Debugging M-files 243
10.6.1 Debugging a script 244
10.6.2 Debugging a function 246
10.7 Recursion 246
7.2.8 Rotation of 3-D graphs 190
7.2.9 Other cool graphics functions 192
8 Loops 205
8.1 Determinate repetition with for 205
8.1.1 Binomial coefficient 205
8.1.2 Update processes 206
8.1.3 Nested fors 208
8.2 Indeterminate repetition with while 208
8.2.1 A guessing game 208
8.2.2 The while statement 209
8.2.3 Doubling time of an investment 210
8.2.4 Prime numbers 211
8.2.5 Projectile trajectory 212
8.2.6 break and continue 215
8.2.7 Menus 215
9 Errors and pitfalls 222
9.1 Syntax errors 222
9.1.1 lasterr 225
9.2 Pitfalls and surprises 225
9.2.1 Incompatible vector sizes 225
9.2.2 Name hiding 225
9.2.3 Other pitfalls for the unwary 226
9.3 Errors in logic 226
9.4 Rounding error 226
9.5 Trapping and generating errors 228
10 Function M-files 230
10.1 Some examples 230
10.1.1 Inline objects: harmonic oscillators 230
10.1.2 Function M-files: Newton’s method again 232
10.2 Basic rules 233
10.2.1 Subfunctions 239
10.2.2 Private functions 239
10.2.3 P-code files 239
10.2.4 Improving M-file performance with the profiler 240
10.3 Function handles 240
10.4 Command/function duality 242
10.5 Function name resolution 243
10.6 Debugging M-files 243
10.6.1 Debugging a script 244
10.6.2 Debugging a function 246
10.7 Recursion 246
13 *Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) 292
13.1 Basic structure of a GUI 292
13.2 A first example: getting the time 293
13.2.1 Exercise 297
13.3 Newton again 297
13.4 Axes on a GUI 301
13.5 Adding color to a button 302
PART II APPLICATIONS 305
14 Dynamical systems 307
14.1 Cantilever beam 309
14.2 Electric current 311
14.3 Free fall 314
14.4 Projectile with friction 323
15 Simulation 328
15.1 Random number generation 328
15.1.1 Seeding rand 329
15.2 Spinning coins 329
15.3 Rolling dice 330
15.4 Bacteria division 331
15.5 A random walk 331
15.6 Traffic flow 333
15.7 Normal (Gaussian) random numbers 336
16 *More matrices 341
16.1 Leslie matrices: population growth 341
16.2 Markov processes 345
16.2.1 A random walk 345
16.3 Linear equations 348
16.3.1 MATLAB’s solution 349
16.3.2 The residual 350
16.3.3 Overdetermined systems 350
16.3.4 Underdetermined systems 351
16.3.5 Ill conditioning 351
16.3.6 Matrix division 352
16.4 Sparse matrices 354
17 *Introduction to numerical methods 359
17.1 Equations 359
17.1.1 Newton’s method 359
17.1.2 The Bisection method 362
17.1.3 fzero 364
17.1.4 roots 364
17.2 Integration 364
17.2.1 The Trapezoidal rule 365
17.2.2 Simpson’s rule 366
17.2.3 quad 367
17.3 Numerical differentiation 367
17.3.1 diff 368
17.4 First-order differential equations 369
17.4.1 Euler’s method 369
17.4.2 Example: bacteria growth 370
17.4.3 Alternative subscript notation 371
17.4.4 A predictor-corrector method 373
17.5 Linear ordinary differential equations (LODEs) 374
17.6 Runge-Kutta methods 375
17.6.1 A single differential equation 375
17.6.2 Systems of differential equations: chaos 376
17.6.3 Passing additional parameters to an ODE solver 379
17.7 A partial differential equation 381
17.7.1 Heat conduction 381
17.8 Other numerical methods 385
Appendix A: Syntax quick reference 390
A.1 Expressions 390
A.2 Function M-files 390
A.3 Graphics 390
A.4 if and switch 391
A.5 for and while 392
A.6 Input/output 393
A.7 load/save 393
A.8 Vectors and matrices 393
Appendix B: Operators 395
Appendix C: Command and functionquick reference 396
C.1 General purpose commands 397
C.1.1 Managing commands 397
C.1.2 Managing variables and the workspace 397
C.1.3 Files and the operating system 397
C.1.4 Controlling the Command Window 398
C.1.5 Starting and quitting MATLAB 398
C.2 Logical functions 398
C.3 Language constructs and debugging 398
C.3.1 MATLAB as a programming language 398
C.3.2 Interactive input 399
C.4 Matrices and matrix manipulation 399
C.4.1 Elementary matrices 399
C.4.2 Special variables and constants 399
C.4.3 Time and date 400
C.4.4 Matrix manipulation 400
C.4.5 Specialized matrices 400
C.5 Mathematical functions 400
C.6 Matrix functions 401
C.7 Data analysis 402
C.8 Polynomial functions 402
C.9 Function functions 402
C.10 Sparse matrix functions 402
C.11 Character string functions 403
C.12 File I/O functions 403
C.13 Graphics 403
C.13.1 2-D 403
C.13.2 3-D 404
C.13.3 General 404
Appendix D: ASCII character codes 405
Appendix E: Solutions to selected exercises 406
Index 421


Ekwere J. Peters petrophysics (free download)










INTRODUCTION


Petrophysics is the study of rock properties and their interactions
with fluids (gases, liquid hydrocarbons and aqueous solutions). Because
petroleum reservoir rocks must have porosity and permeability, we are
most interested in the properties of porous and permeable rocks. The
purpose of this text is to provide a basic understanding of the physical
properties of permeable geologic rocks and the interactions of the various
fluids with their interstitial surfaces. Particular emphasis is placed on
the transport properties of the rocks for single phase and multiphase
flow.
The petrophysical properties that are discussed in this text
include:
• Porosity
• Absolute permeability
• Effective and relative permeabilities
• Water saturation

• Irreducible water saturation
• Hydrocarbon saturation
• Residual oil saturation
• Capillary pressure
• Wettability
• Pore size
• Pore size distribution
• Pore structure
• Net pay thickness
• Isothermal coefficient of compressibility
• Mineralogy
• Specific pore surface area
• Dispersivity 






TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1 PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS ......................................... 1-1
1.1 PETROPHYSICS ............................................................................... 1-1
1.2 PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS ................................................1-2
1.3 MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF ROCKS—A REVIEW ...................1-4
1.4 ROCKS............................................................................................... 1-5
1.4.1 Igneous Rocks.................................................................... 1-5
1.4.2 Metamorphic Rocks...........................................................1-6
1.4.3 Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................1-6
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ............................. 1-7
1.5.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks ................................................ 1-7
1.5.2 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks............................................ 1-7
1.5.3 Organic Sedimentary Rocks ..............................................1-8
1.6 DISTRIBUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES .................... 1-10
1.7 SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS (CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCK) ............................................................................................. 1-10
1.7.1 Pore Space ....................................................................... 1-12
1.7.2 Compaction and Cementation......................................... 1-15
1.7.3 Classification ................................................................... 1-17
1.8 CARBONATE RESERVOIRS (LIMESTONES AND
DOLOMITES) .................................................................................1-20
1.8.1 Classification ................................................................... 1-21
1.8.2 Pore Space .......................................................................1-22
1.9 FRACTURED RESERVOIRS..........................................................1-28
1.10 RESEVOIR COLUMN.....................................................................1-29
REFRENCES...................................................................................1-32
2 POROSITY AND FLUID SATURATIONS..................................2-1
2.1 DEFINITION OF POROSITY ...........................................................2-1
2.2 FACTORS AFFECTING SANDSTONE POROSITY ........................ 2-2
2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CARBONATE POROSITY ........................ 2-4
2.4 TYPICAL RESERVOIR POROSITY VALUES.................................. 2-5
2.5 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY.......................... 2-6



2.5.1 Direct Porosity Measurement by Routine
Core Analysis .................................................................... 2-6
2.5.2 Indirect Porosity Measurement by CT Imaging.............. 2-11
2.6 FLUID SATURATIONS ..................................................................2-16
2.7 INDIRECT POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM
WELL LOGS................................................................................... 2-24
2.7.1 Introduction to Well Logging......................................... 2-24
2.7.2 Mud filtrate Invasion...................................................... 2-25
2.7.3 Porosity Logs .................................................................. 2-32
Density Log .................................................................. 2-32
Sonic Log (Acoustic Log) ............................................. 2-36
Neutron Log .................................................................2-41
Combination Porosity Logs ......................................... 2-45
2.7.4 Resistivity Log ................................................................ 2-46
Electric Log ................................................................. 2-54
Induction-Electric Log................................................ 2-56
Dual Induction Laterolog ........................................... 2-58
Focused Electric Log (Guard and Laterolog) ............. 2-62
Microresistivity Logs................................................... 2-65
2.7.5 Lithology Logs ................................................................ 2-68
Spontaneous Potential Log (SP) ................................. 2-68
The Gamma Ray Log (GR)...........................................2-73
2.7.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Logs.................... 2-76
Nuclear Spins in a Magnetic Field.............................. 2-76
The Effect of Radiofrequency Pulses -
Resonance Absorption ............................................... 2-79
Relaxation Processes...................................................2-80
Molecular Diffusion Effect.......................................... 2-84
NMR Signal and Corresponding T2 Spectrum ........... 2-84
Pore Size Distribution................................................. 2-89
Estimation of Permeability from
NMR Relaxation Times............................................... 2-95
2.7.7 NMR Imaging of Laboratory Cores................................ 2-97
The Effect of Magnetic Field Gradients...................... 2-98
Slice-Selective Excitation............................................ 2-99
Frequency Encoding ................................................. 2-100
Phase Encoding..........................................................2-101
Image Reconstruction............................................... 2-102
Three-Dimensional NMR Imaging............................2-103
Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Image Contrast............... 2-104
Example NMR Images of Laboratory Cores..............2-105
2.7.8 A Comparison of Various Porosity
Measurements for Shaly Sand....................................... 2-112
2.8 RESERVE ESTIMATION PROJECT ........................................... 2-113
2.8.1 Reserve Estimation........................................................ 2-114



2.8.2 Economic Evaluation..................................................... 2-115
2.8.3 Simulation Procedure.................................................... 2-116
2.8.4 Sampling Procedure ...................................................... 2-116
2.8.5 Simulation Output.........................................................2-124
2.9 PORE VOLUME COMPRESIBILITY............................................2-126
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................2-135
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................2-138
3 PERMEABILITY .....................................................................3-1
3.1 DEFINITION ....................................................................................3-1
3.2 DIMENSIONS AND UNIT OF PERMEABILITY............................ 3-6
3.3 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY...............3-7
3.4 FIELD DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY ..........................3-14
3.4.1 Diffusivity Equation for Slightly
Compressible Liquid........................................................3-15
3.4.2 Pressure Drawdown Equation ........................................3-19
3.4.3 Pressure Buildup Equation ............................................ 3-22
3.4.4 Diagnostic Plots.............................................................. 3-24
3.4.5 Skin Factor...................................................................... 3-30
3.4.6 Homogenous Reservoir Model with
Wellbore Storage and Skin............................................. 3-33
3.4.7 Type Curve Matching ......................................................3-37
3.4.8 Radius of Investigation of a Well Test ........................... 3-40
3.4.9 Field Example of Well Test Analysis .............................. 3-40
3.4.10 Welltest Model for Dry Gas Reservoir .......................... 3-52
3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY..................................... 3-56
3.5.1 Compaction..................................................................... 3-56
3.5.2 Pore Size (Grain Size) ..................................................... 3-56
3.5.3 Sorting ............................................................................ 3-60
3.5.4 Cementation ................................................................... 3-60
3.5.5 Layering .......................................................................... 3-60
3.5.6 Clay Swelling....................................................................3-61
3.6 TYPICAL RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY VALUES .......................3-61
3.7 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY CORRELATIONS............................3-61
3.8 CAPILLARY TUBE MODELS OF POROUS MEDIA..................... 3-69
3.8.1 Carman-Kozeny Equation .............................................. 3-69
3.8.2 Tortuosity ........................................................................3-75
3.8.3 Calculation of Permeability from Pore



Size Distribution............................................................. 3-79
3.9 STEADY STATE FLOW THROUGH FRACTURES....................... 3-84
3.10 AVERAGING PERMEABILITY DATA .......................................... 3-85
3.11 DARCY’S LAW FOR INCLINED FLOW........................................3-88
3.12 VALIDITY OF DARCY’S LAW....................................................... 3-99
3.13 NON-DARCY FLOW.....................................................................3-101
3.14 DARCY’S LAW FOR ANISOTROPIC POROUS MEDIA............. 3-106
3.14.1 Definition of Homogeneity and Anisotropy ................ 3-106
3.14.2 Darcy’s Law for Homogeneous
and Anisotropic Medium.............................................3-107
3.14.3 Transformation of Permeability Tensor
from One Coordinate system to Another .................... 3-114
3.14.4 Alternative Calculation of the Principal
Values and the Principal Axes of the
Permeability Anisotropy..............................................3-122
3.14.5 Directional Permeability...............................................3-124
3.14.6 Measurement of Transverse Permeability
of a Cylindrical Core ....................................................3-137
3.15 EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF PERMEABILITY.......................3-140
3.15.1 Productivity of Horizontal Well ....................................3-140
Introduction............................................................... 3-141
Homogeneous and Isotropic Reservoirs ................... 3-141
Homogeneous and Anisotropic Reservoirs ...............3-145
3.15.2 Productivity of a Vertically Fractured Well ..................3-152
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................3-155
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................3-159
4 HETEROGENEITY ................................................................ 4-1
4.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................4-1
4.2 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND
VARIABILITY (HETEROGENEITY)............................................... 4-3
4.2.1 Measures of Central Tendency......................................... 4-3
Mean.............................................................................. 4-3
Geometric Mean............................................................ 4-3
Median .......................................................................... 4-3
Mode.............................................................................. 4-4
4.2.1 Measures of Variability
(Heterogeneity or Spread) ............................................... 4-4
Variance ........................................................................ 4-4

Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient of Variation..................... 4-5
Lorenz Coefficient ......................................................... 4-8
4.3 MEASURES OF SPATIAL CONTINUITY ...................................... 4-11
4.3.1 Variogram........................................................................4-13
Definition .....................................................................4-13
How to Calculate the Variogram .................................4-16
Physical Meaning of the Variogram............................ 4-27
Variogram Models....................................................... 4-28
Fitting a Theoretical Variogram Model to
an Experimental Variogram ....................................... 4-35
Variogram Anisotropy .................................................4-41
Example Experimental Variograms............................ 4-44
4.3.2 Covariance (Autocovariance) Function...........................4-51
Definition .....................................................................4-51
Physical Meaning of Covariance Function ................. 4-54
4.3.3 Correlation Coefficient Function
(Autocorrelation Function) .............................................4-57
4.4 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ................................................. 4-59
4.4.1 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution .................................... 4-60
4.4.2 Log Normal Distribution................................................ 4-72
4.5 ESTIMATION .................................................................................4-75
4.5.1 Introduction ....................................................................4-75
4.5.2 Ordinary Kriging Equations ........................................... 4-86
Derivation in Terms of the
Covariance Function................................................... 4-89
Derivation in Terms of the Variogram ....................... 4-94
Solution of the Kriging Equation in terms
of the Covariance Function......................................... 4-98
Solution of the Kriging Equation in terms
of Variogram..............................................................4-103
4.6 CONDITIONAL SIMULATION....................................................4-132
4.6.1 Introduction ..................................................................4-132
4.6.2 Sequential Gaussian Simulation ...................................4-132
4.6.3 A Practical Application of Sequential
Gaussian Simulation .....................................................4-136
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................4-148
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................4-149
5 DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA ..........................................5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................5-1



5.2 LABORATORY FIRST-CONTACT MISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENTS........................................................................... 5-3
5.3 ORIGIN OF DISPERSION IN POROUS MEDIA.......................... 5-20
5.3.1 Molecular Diffusion.........................................................5-21
5.3.2 Mechanical Dispersion ....................................................5-21
5.4 CONVECTION-DISPERSION EQUATION................................... 5-23
5.4.1 Generalized Equation in Vector Notation...................... 5-23
5.4.2 One Dimensional Convection-Dispersion
Equation ........................................................................ 5-25
5.4.2 Solution of the One-Dimensional
Convection-Dispersion Equation................................... 5-26
5.5 DISPERSION COEFFICENT AND DISPERSIVITY ..................... 5-42
5.6 MEASURMENT OF DISPERSION COEFFICENT
AND DISPERSIVITY ......................................................................5-53
5.6.1 Traditional Laboratory Method with
Breakthrough Curve .......................................................5-53
5.6.2 Laboratory Method of Peters et al. (1996) ..................... 5-56
5.6.3 Field Measurement of Dispersion
Coefficient and Dispersivity ............................................ 5-71
5.7 FACTORS THAT COULD AFFECT DISPERSION
COEFFICENT AND DISPERSIVITY ..............................................5-75
5.8 NUMERICAL MODELING OF FIRST-CONTACT
MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT .........................................................5-79
5.8.1 Introduction ....................................................................5-79
5.8.2 Mathematical Model of First-Contact
Miscible Displacement ....................................................5-79
5.8.3 Numerical Modeling of Laboratory Experiments.......... 5-82
Experiment 1 ................................................................. 5-84
Experiment 2..................................................................5-91
Experiment 3................................................................. 5-99
Experiment 4................................................................5-106
Experiment 5................................................................ 5-116
Experiment 6................................................................ 5-121
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................5-126
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS.............................5-128
6 INTERFACIAL PHENOMENA AND WETTABILITY................ 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................6-1
6.2 SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSIONS................................... 6-2
6.2.1 Surface Tension ................................................................ 6-2
6.2.2 Interfacial Tension .......................................................... 6-11

6.2.3 Measurement of Surface and
Interfacial Tension.........................................................6-20
Capillary Rise Experiment ............................................6-20
Sessile Drop Method..................................................... 6-24
Pendant Drop Method .................................................. 6-26
Ring Method.................................................................. 6-27
Spinning Drop Method ................................................. 6-30
6.3 WETTABILITY................................................................................6-31
6.3.1 Definition.........................................................................6-31
6.3.2 Determination of Wettability ......................................... 6-36
Contact Angle Method ................................................. 6-37
Amott Wettability Test..................................................6-40
United State Bureau of Mines (USBM)
Wettability Test ............................................................. 6-42
6.3.3 Wettability of Petroleum Reservoirs.............................. 6-45
6.3.4 Effect of Wettability on Rock-Fluid Interactions........... 6-46
Microscopic Fluid Distribution at the
Pore Scale ..................................................................... 6-47
Effect of Wettability on Irreducible
Water Saturation .......................................................... 6-47
Effect of Wettability on Electrical
Properties of Rocks ...................................................... 6-48
Effect of Wettability on the Efficiency of an
Immiscible Displacement .............................................6-51
6.3 THERMODYMAMICS OF INTERFACES ..................................... 6-64
6.4.1 Characterization of Interfacial Tension
as Specific Surface Energy.............................................. 6-64
6.4.2 Characterization of Microscopic Pore Level
Fluid Displacements....................................................... 6-66
Case 1. Displacement of a Nonwetting
Phase by a Wetting Phase ............................................ 6-67
Case 2. Displacement of a Wetting Phase
by a Nonwetting Phase ................................................. 6-69
NOMENCLATURE .........................................................................6-71
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS .............................. 6-73
7 CAPILLARY PRESSURE .........................................................7-1
7.1 DEFINITION OF CAPILLARY PRESSURE ..................................... 7-1
7.2 CAPILLARY PRESSURE-SATURATION RELATIONSHIP
FOR A POROUS MEDIUM.............................................................. 7-8
7.3 DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE .............................. 7-17



7.4 CONVERSION OF LABORATORY CAPILLARY PRESSURE
DATA TO RESERVOIR CONDITIONS ..........................................7-21
7.5 AVERAGING CAPILLARY PRESSURE DATA ..............................7-21
7.6 DETERMINATION OF INITIAL STATIC RESERVOIR
FLUID SATURATIONS BY USE OF DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE.................................................. 7-28
7.7 CAPILLARY PRESSURE HYSTERESIS.........................................7-45
7.8 CAPILLARY IMBIBITION..............................................................7-54
7.9 CAPILLARY END EFFECT IN A LABORATORY CORE ...............7-57
7.9.1 Capillary End Effect.........................................................7-57
7.9.2 Mathematical Analysis of Capillary End Effect ..............7-59
7.9.3 Mathematical Model of Capillary End Effect
During Steady State Relative Permeability
Measurement.................................................................. 7-68
7.9.4 Experimental Evidence of Capillary End Effect...............7-70
7.10 CAPILLARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ................................7-76
7.10.1 Restored State Method (Porous Plate Method)..............7-76
7.10.2 Mercury Injection Method .............................................7-77
7.10.3 Centrifuge Method..........................................................7-81
7.11 PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION......................................................... 7-96
7.11.1 Introduction.................................................................... 7-96
7.11.2 Pore Volume Distribution .............................................. 7-98
7.11.3 Pore Size Distribution Based on Bundle
of Capillary Tubes Model ............................................7-103
7.11.4 Mercury Injection Porosimeter..................................... 7-115
7.12 CALCULATION OF PERMEABILITY FROM DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE................................................. 7-118
7.12.1 Calculation of Absolute Permeability from
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curve............................. 7-118
7.12.2 Calculation of Relative Permeabilities from
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curve.............................7-132
7.13 EMPIRICAL CAPILLARY PRESSURE MODELS ........................7-133
7.13.1 Brooks-Corey Capillary Pressure Models .....................7-133
7.13.2 van Genuchten Capillary Pressure Model ....................7-143
7.14 CAPILLARY TRAPPING IN POROUS MEDIA........................... 7- 145
7.14.1 Pore Doublet Model of Capillary Trapping................... 7-145

7.14.2 Snap-Off Model of Capillary Trapping ......................... 7-152
7.14.3 Mobilization of Residual Non-Wetting Phase.............. 7-155
7.14.4 Oil Migration.................................................................7-159
7.15 EFFECTS OF WETTABILITY AND INTERFACIAL
TENSION ON CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES.......................7-162
NOMENCLATURE .......................................................................7-164
REFRENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS ............................ 7-168
8 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY................................................... 8-1
8.1 DEFINITION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY...............................8-1
8.2 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY BY THE STEADY STATE
METHOD......................................................................................... 8-6
8.3 THEORY OF ONE DIMENSIONAL IMMISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENT IN A POROUS MEDIUM..................................8-15
8.3.1 Mathematical Model of Two-Phase
Immiscible Displacement................................................8-15
8.3.2 Buckley-Leverett Approximate Solution of the
Immiscible Displacement Equation................................8-21
8.3.3 Waterflood Performance Calculations from
Buckley-Leverett Theory .................................................8-31
Oil Recovery at any Time ...............................................8-31
Oil Recovery Before Water Breakthrough.....................8-31
Oil Recovery at Water Breakthrough............................ 8-32
Oil Recovery After Water Breakthrough ...................... 8-36
Water Production...........................................................8-41
8.4 LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF TWO-PHASE
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY BY THE UNSTEADY STATE
METHOD........................................................................................8-51
8.5 FACTORS AFFECTING RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES.............. 8-65
8.5.1 Fluid Saturation.............................................................. 8-65
8.5.2 Saturation History..........................................................8-66
8.5.3 Wettability ...................................................................... 8-67
8.5.4 Injection Rate ................................................................. 8-70
8.5.5 Viscosity Ratio ................................................................ 8-73
8.5.6 Interfacial Tension ......................................................... 8-74
8.5.7Pore Structure .................................................................. 8-75
8.5.8 Temperature ................................................................... 8-76
8.5.9 Heterogeneity ................................................................. 8-78



8.6 THREE-PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES .......................... 8-79
8.4 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITIES FROM
DRAINAGE CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVE .............................8-82
NOMENCLATURE .........................................................................8-91
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS............................ 8-94
APPENDIX A: A Systematic Approach To Dimensional Analysis .. A-1
Summary.......................................................................................... A-1
Introduction..................................................................................... A-1
Algebraic Theory of Dimensional Analysis......................................A-2
Transformation of the Dimensionless p Groups .............................A-9
Example Problem.............................................................................A-9
Procedure ....................................................................................... A-10
Transformation of the Dimensionless p Groups for
Example Problem........................................................................... A-21
Some Practical Considerations ......................................................A-28
Concluding Remarks...................................................................... A-31
Nomenclature ................................................................................ A-31
References ......................................................................................A-32