Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology handbook free download

John Bird

Part 1 Basic Electrical Engineering Principles.................................... 1
1 Units associated with basic electrical quantities........................................ 1
SI units .......................................................................................................................... 1
Charge........................................................................................................................... 4
Force ............................................................................................................................. 4
Work .............................................................................................................................. 5
Power ............................................................................................................................ 5
Electrical potential and e. m. f. ...................................................................................... 6
Resistance and conductance ........................................................................................ 6
Electrical power and energy .......................................................................................... 7
Summary of terms, units and their symbols .................................................................. 8
Further problems on units associated with basic electrical quantities........................... 9
2 An introduction to electric circuits .............................................................. 10
Standard symbols for electrical components................................................................. 10
Electric current and quantity of electricity ...................................................................... 11
Potential difference and resistance ............................................................................... 13
Basic electrical measuring instruments ......................................................................... 13
Linear and non- linear devices ...................................................................................... 13
Ohms law ..................................................................................................................... 14
Multiples and sub- multiples .......................................................................................... 14
Conductors and insulators............................................................................................. 16
Electrical power and energy .......................................................................................... 16
Main effects of electric current ...................................................................................... 20
Fuses............................................................................................................................. 20
Further problems ........................................................................................................... 13
3 Resistance variation .................................................................................. 23
Resistance and resistivity.............................................................................................. 23
Temperature coefficient of resistance ........................................................................... 26
Further problems on resistance variation ...................................................................... 29
4 Chemical effects of electricity .................................................................... 31
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 31
Electrolysis .................................................................................................................... 31
Electroplating................................................................................................................. 32
The simple cell .............................................................................................................. 32
Corrosion ....................................................................................................................... 33
E.m.f. and internal resistance of a cell .......................................................................... 34
Primary cells .................................................................................................................. 36
Secondary cells ............................................................................................................. 37
Cell capacity .................................................................................................................. 39
Further problems on the chemical effects of electricity ................................................. 39
Assignment 1................................................................................................ 41
5 Series and parallel networks ..................................................................... 42
Series circuits ................................................................................................................ 42
Potential divider............................................................................................................. 44
Parallel networks ........................................................................................................... 45
Current division ............................................................................................................. 48
Wiring lamps in series and in parallel ............................................................................ 52
Further problems on series and parallel networks ........................................................ 53
6 Capacitors and capacitance ...................................................................... 55
Electrostatic field ........................................................................................................... 57
Electric field strength ..................................................................................................... 57
Capacitance .................................................................................................................. 57
Capacitors ..................................................................................................................... 57
Electric flux density........................................................................................................ 59
Permittivity..................................................................................................................... 59
The parallel plate capacitor ........................................................................................... 61
Capacitors connected in parallel and series.................................................................. 63
Dielectric strength.......................................................................................................... 67
Energy stored ................................................................................................................ 68
Practical types of capacitor ........................................................................................... 69
Discharging capacitors .................................................................................................. 70
Further problems on capacitors and capacitance ......................................................... 70
7 Magnetic circuits........................................................................................ 74
Magnetic fields .............................................................................................................. 74
Magnetic flux and flux density ....................................................................................... 75
Magnetomotive force and magnetic field strength......................................................... 76
Permeability and B Ò H curves ....................................................................................... 77
Reluctance .................................................................................................................... 80
Composite series magnetic circuits ............................................................................... 81
Comparison between electrical and magnetic quantities .............................................. 84
Hysteresis and hysteresis loss ...................................................................................... 84
Further problems on magnetic circuits .......................................................................... 85
Assignment 2................................................................................................ 87
8 Electromagnetism...................................................................................... 89
Magnetic field due to an electric current........................................................................ 89
Electromagnets ............................................................................................................. 91
Force on a current- carrying conductor ......................................................................... 92
Principle of operation of a simple d. c. motor ................................................................ 96
Principle of operation of a moving coil instrument ......................................................... 97
Force on a charge ......................................................................................................... 98
Further problems on electromagnetism......................................................................... 98
9 Electromagnetic induction ......................................................................... 100
Introduction to electromagnetic induction ...................................................................... 100
Laws of electromagnetic induction ................................................................................ 101
Inductance..................................................................................................................... 104
Inductors........................................................................................................................ 106
Energy stored ................................................................................................................ 107
Inductance of a coil ....................................................................................................... 107
Mutual inductance ......................................................................................................... 108
Further problems on electromagnetic induction ............................................................ 109
10 Electrical measuring instruments and measurements............................. 113
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 113
Analogue instruments.................................................................................................... 113
Moving-iron instrument .................................................................................................. 113
The moving-coil rectifier instrument .............................................................................. 114
Comparison of moving- coil, moving- iron and moving- coil rectifier instruments ......... 114
Shunts and multipliers ................................................................................................... 115
Electronic instruments ................................................................................................... 117
The ohmmeter ............................................................................................................... 117
Multimeters .................................................................................................................... 118
Wattmeters .................................................................................................................... 118
Instrument ˛ loadingÌ effect ............................................................................................ 118
The cathode ray oscilloscope ........................................................................................ 121
Waveform harmonics .................................................................................................... 124
Logarithmic ratios .......................................................................................................... 126
Null method of measurement ........................................................................................ 129
Wheatstone bridge ........................................................................................................ 129
D.c. potentiometer ......................................................................................................... 130
A.c. bridges ................................................................................................................... 130
Measurement errors ...................................................................................................... 131
Further problems on electrical measuring instruments and measurements.................. 133
11 Semiconductor diodes ............................................................................. 137
Types of materials ......................................................................................................... 137
Silicon and germanium.................................................................................................. 138
n-type and p-type materials ........................................................................................... 138
The p-n junction............................................................................................................. 139
Forward and reverse bias.............................................................................................. 140
Semiconductor diodes................................................................................................... 140
Rectification ................................................................................................................... 143
Further problems on semiconductor diodes .................................................................. 143
12 Transistors............................................................................................... 145
The bipolar junction transistor ....................................................................................... 145
Transistor action............................................................................................................ 147
Transistor symbols ........................................................................................................ 149
Transistor connections .................................................................................................. 149
Transistor characteristics .............................................................................................. 150
The transistor as an amplifier ........................................................................................ 152
The load line .................................................................................................................. 154
Current and voltage gains ............................................................................................. 155
Thermal runaway........................................................................................................... 158
Further problems on transistors .................................................................................... 159
Assignment 3................................................................................................ 162
Main formulae for Part 1............................................................................... 164
General.......................................................................................................................... 164
Capacitors and capacitance .......................................................................................... 164
Magnetic circuits............................................................................................................ 164
Electromagnetism.......................................................................................................... 164
Electromagnetic induction ............................................................................................. 164
Measurements............................................................................................................... 164
Part 2 Electrical Principles and Technology ....................................... 165
13 D.c. circuit theory..................................................................................... 167
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 167
Kirchhoffs laws ............................................................................................................. 167
The superposition theorem............................................................................................ 171
General d.c. circuit theory ............................................................................................. 174
Th · evenins theorem.................................................................................................... 176
Constant-current source ................................................................................................ 181
Nortons theorem........................................................................................................... 181
Th · evenin and Norton equivalent networks ................................................................. 184
Maximum power transfer theorem................................................................................. 187
Further problems on d. c. circuit theory ......................................................................... 189
14 Alternating voltages and currents............................................................ 193
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 193
The a.c. generator ......................................................................................................... 194
Waveforms .................................................................................................................... 194
A.c. values..................................................................................................................... 195
The equation of a sinusoidal waveform......................................................................... 200
Combination of waveforms ............................................................................................ 204
Rectification ................................................................................................................... 208
Further problems on alternating voltages and currents................................................. 209
Assignment 4................................................................................................ 212
15 Single-phase series a.c. circuits .............................................................. 213
Purely resistive a.c. circuit ............................................................................................. 214
Purely inductive a.c. circuit ............................................................................................ 214
Purely capacitive a. c. circuit ......................................................................................... 214
R … L series a.c. circuit ................................................................................................... 215
R … C series a.c. circuit .................................................................................................. 220
R … L … C series a.c. circuit ............................................................................................. 221
Series resonance .......................................................................................................... 225
Q-factor ......................................................................................................................... 227
Bandwidth and selectivity .............................................................................................. 229
Power in a.c. circuits ..................................................................................................... 230
Power triangle and power factor.................................................................................... 232
Further problems on single- phase series a. c. circuits ................................................. 234
16 Single-phase parallel a. c. circuits ........................................................... 238
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 238
R … L parallel a.c. circuit ................................................................................................. 238
R … C parallel a.c. circuit ................................................................................................ 240
L … C parallel a.c. circuit ................................................................................................. 241
LR … C parallel a.c. circuit .............................................................................................. 243
Parallel resonance and Q- factor ................................................................................... 247
Power factor improvement ............................................................................................ 252
Further problems on single- phase parallel a. c. circuits ............................................... 256
17 D.c. transients ......................................................................................... 259
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 259
Charging a capacitor ..................................................................................................... 260
Time constant for a C … R circuit .................................................................................... 260
Transient curves for a C … R circuit ................................................................................ 261
Discharging a capacitor ................................................................................................. 266
Current growth in an L … R circuit ................................................................................... 268
Time constant for an L … R circuit ................................................................................... 269
Transient curves for an L … R circuit............................................................................... 269
Current decay in an L … R circuit .................................................................................... 272
Switching inductive circuits............................................................................................ 275
The effects of time constant on a rectangular waveform............................................... 275
Further problems on d. c. transients.............................................................................. 276
18 Operational amplifiers ............................................................................. 278
Introduction to operational amplifiers ............................................................................ 278
Some op amp parameters ............................................................................................. 280
Op amp inverting amplifier ............................................................................................ 282
Op amp non- inverting amplifier .................................................................................... 285
Op amp voltage- follower .............................................................................................. 286
Op amp summing amplifier ........................................................................................... 286
Op amp voltage comparator .......................................................................................... 288
Op amp integrator ......................................................................................................... 288
Op amp differential amplifier ......................................................................................... 289
Digital to analogue ( D/ A) conversion........................................................................... 291
Analogue to digital ( A/ D) conversion ........................................................................... 293
Further problems on operational amplifiers................................................................... 294
Assignment 5................................................................................................ 296
19 Three phase systems .............................................................................. 297
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 297
Three-phase supply....................................................................................................... 298
Star connection ............................................................................................................. 298
Delta connection............................................................................................................ 302
Power in three- phase systems ..................................................................................... 303
Measurement of power in three- phase systems .......................................................... 306
Comparison of star and delta connections .................................................................... 312
Advantages of three- phase systems ............................................................................ 312
Further problems on three- phase systems................................................................... 312
20 Transformers ........................................................................................... 315
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 315
Transformer principle of operation ................................................................................ 316
Transformer no- load phasor diagram........................................................................... 319
E.m.f. equation of a transformer .................................................................................... 320
Transformer on- load phasor diagram........................................................................... 324
Transformer construction .............................................................................................. 325
Equivalent circuit of a transformer ................................................................................. 326
Regulation of a transformer ........................................................................................... 329
Transformer losses and efficiency................................................................................. 330
Resistance matching ..................................................................................................... 334
Auto transformers .......................................................................................................... 337
Isolating transformers.................................................................................................... 340
Three-phase transformers ............................................................................................. 340
Current transformers ..................................................................................................... 342
Voltage transformers ..................................................................................................... 343
Further problems on transformers................................................................................. 344
Assignment 6................................................................................................ 349
21 D.c. machines.......................................................................................... 350
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 350
The action of a commutator ........................................................................................... 351
D.c. machine construction ............................................................................................. 352
Shunt, series and compound windings.......................................................................... 353
E.m.f. generated in an armature winding ...................................................................... 353
D.c. generators .............................................................................................................. 356
Types of d.c. generator and their characteristics .......................................................... 356
D.c. machine losses ...................................................................................................... 362
Efficiency of a d.c. generator ......................................................................................... 363
D.c. motors .................................................................................................................... 364
Torque of a d.c. machine............................................................................................... 365
Types of d.c. motor and their characteristics................................................................. 368
The efficiency of a d. c. motor ....................................................................................... 373
D.c. motor starter........................................................................................................... 376
Speed control of d. c. motors ........................................................................................ 377
Motor cooling................................................................................................................. 381
Further problems on d. c. machines .............................................................................. 381
22 Three-phase induction motors................................................................. 386
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 386
Production of a rotating magnetic field .......................................................................... 387
Synchronous speed....................................................................................................... 388
Construction of a three- phase induction motor ............................................................ 390
Principle of operation of a three- phase induction motor ............................................... 390
Slip ................................................................................................................................ 391
Rotor e.m.f. and frequency ............................................................................................ 393
Rotor impedance and current ........................................................................................ 394
Rotor copper loss .......................................................................................................... 395
Induction motor losses and efficiency ........................................................................... 395
Torque equation for an induction motor ........................................................................ 397
Induction motor torque - speed characteristics ............................................................. 401
Starting methods for induction motors........................................................................... 403
Advantages of squirrel- cage induction motors ............................................................. 404
Advantages of wound rotor induction motor .................................................................. 405
Double cage induction motor......................................................................................... 405
Uses of three-phase induction motors........................................................................... 405
Further problems on three- phase induction motors ..................................................... 406
Assignment 7................................................................................................ 408
Main formulae for Part 2............................................................................... 409
A.c. theory: .................................................................................................................... 409
Single-phase circuits: .................................................................................................... 410
D.c. transients: .............................................................................................................. 410
Operational amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Three-phase systems: ................................................................................................... 411
Transformers: ................................................................................................................ 411
D.c. machines:............................................................................................................... 411
Three-phase induction motors:...................................................................................... 411
Part 3 Advanced Circuit Theory and Technology ............................... 413
23 Revision of complex numbers ................................................................. 415
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 415
Operations involving Cartesian complex numbers ........................................................ 417
Complex equations........................................................................................................ 419
The polar form of a complex number ............................................................................ 421
Multiplication and division using complex numbers in polar form.................................. 421
De Moivres theorem „ powers and roots of complex numbers ..................................... 423
Further problems on complex numbers ......................................................................... 424
24 Application of complex numbers to series a. c. circuits........................... 429
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 429
Series a.c. circuits ......................................................................................................... 429
Further problems on series a. c. circuits ....................................................................... 440
25 Application of complex numbers to parallel a. c. networks...................... 25
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 25
Admittance, conductance and susceptance.................................................................. 25
Parallel a.c. networks .................................................................................................... 448
Further problems on parallel a. c. networks .................................................................. 454
26 Power in a.c. circuits ............................................................................... 459
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 459
Determination of power in a. c. circuits ......................................................................... 459
Power triangle and power factor.................................................................................... 464
Use of complex numbers for determination of power .................................................... 465
Power factor improvement ............................................................................................ 470
Further problems on power in a. c. circuits ................................................................... 472
Assignment 8................................................................................................ 475
27 A.c. bridges ............................................................................................. 476
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 476
Balance conditions for an a. c. bridge ........................................................................... 476
Types of a.c. bridge circuit ............................................................................................ 478
Further problems on a. c. bridges ................................................................................. 488
28 Series resonance and Q- factor .............................................................. 491
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 491
Series resonance .......................................................................................................... 491
Q-factor ......................................................................................................................... 495
Voltage magnification .................................................................................................... 498
Q-factors in series ......................................................................................................... 502
Bandwidth...................................................................................................................... 504
Small deviations from the resonant frequency .............................................................. 509
Further problems on series resonance and Q- factor.................................................... 512
29 Parallel resonance and Q- factor............................................................. 515
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 516
The LR … C parallel network ........................................................................................... 516
Dynamic resistance ....................................................................................................... 517
The LR … CR parallel network ........................................................................................ 517
Q-factor in a parallel network ........................................................................................ 519
Further problems on parallel resonance and Q- factor.................................................. 527
Assignment 9................................................................................................ 530
30 Introduction to network analysis .............................................................. 531
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 531
Solution of simultaneous equations using determinants ............................................... 532
Network analysis using Kirchhoffs laws ....................................................................... 535
Further problems on Kirchhoffs laws............................................................................ 542
31 Mesh-current and nodal analysis ............................................................ 545
Mesh-current analysis ................................................................................................... 545
Nodal analysis ............................................................................................................... 550
Further problems on mesh- current and nodal analysis ................................................ 559
32 The superposition theorem...................................................................... 562
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 562
Using the superposition theorem................................................................................... 562
Further problems on the superposition theorem ........................................................... 573
33 Thevenins and Nortons theorems ......................................................... 5755
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 575
Thevenins theorem....................................................................................................... 575
Nortons theorem........................................................................................................... 587
Thevenin and Norton equivalent networks .................................................................... 593
Further problems on Thevenins and Nortons theorem................................................ 598
Assignment 10.............................................................................................. 602
34 Delta-star and star-delta transformations ................................................ 603
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 603
Delta and star connections ............................................................................................ 603
Delta-star transformation............................................................................................... 603
Star-delta transformation............................................................................................... 611
Further problems on delta-star and star-delta transformations ..................................... 614
35 Maximum power transfer theorems and impedance matching................ 617
Maximum power transfer theorems ............................................................................... 617
Impedance matching ..................................................................................................... 623
Further problems on maximum power transfer theorems and impedance matching .... 626
Assignment 11.............................................................................................. 629
36 Complex Waveforms ............................................................................... 631
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 631
The general equation for a complex waveform ............................................................. 632
Harmonic synthesis ....................................................................................................... 633
Rms value, mean value and the form factor of a complex wave................................... 645
Power associated with complex waves ......................................................................... 650
Harmonics in single- phase circuits ............................................................................... 653
Resonance due to harmonics........................................................................................ 664
Sources of harmonics.................................................................................................... 666
Further problems on complex waveforms ..................................................................... 671
37 A numerical method of harmonic analysis............................................... 678
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 678
Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular or graphical form....................................... 683
Complex waveform considerations ............................................................................... 683
Further problems on a numerical method of harmonic analysis.................................... 685
38 Magnetic materials .................................................................................. 688
Revision of terms and units used with magnetic circuits ............................................... 688
Magnetic properties of materials ................................................................................... 690
Hysteresis and hysteresis loss ...................................................................................... 692
Eddy current loss........................................................................................................... 696
Separation of hysteresis and eddy current losses......................................................... 701
Nonpermanent magnetic materials ............................................................................... 704
Permanent magnetic materials...................................................................................... 706
Further problems on magnetic materials ....................................................................... 707
Assignment 12.............................................................................................. 710
39 Dielectrics and dielectric loss .................................................................. 711
Electric fields, capacitance and permittivity................................................................... 711
Polarization.................................................................................................................... 711
Dielectric strength.......................................................................................................... 712
Thermal effects.............................................................................................................. 714
Mechanical properties ................................................................................................... 714
Types of practical capacitor ........................................................................................... 715
Liquid dielectrics and gas insulation .............................................................................. 715
Dielectric loss and loss angle ........................................................................................ 715
Further problems on dielectric loss and loss angle ....................................................... 719
40 Field theory.............................................................................................. 720
Field plotting by curvilinear squares .............................................................................. 720
Capacitance between concentric cylinders ................................................................... 725
Capacitance of an isolated twin line .............................................................................. 733
Energy stored in an electric field ................................................................................... 737
Induced e.m.f. and inductance ...................................................................................... 741
Inductance of a concentric cylinder ( or coaxial cable).................................................. 741
Inductance of an isolated twin line ................................................................................ 746
Energy stored in an electromagnetic field ..................................................................... 750
Further problems on field theory ................................................................................... 753
41 Attenuators .............................................................................................. 758
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 758
Characteristic impedance.............................................................................................. 759
Logarithmic ratios .......................................................................................................... 761
Symmetrical T-and p- attenuators ................................................................................. 764
Insertion loss ................................................................................................................. 772
Asymmetrical Tand p- sections ..................................................................................... 775
The L-section attenuator ............................................................................................... 779
Two-port networks in cascade....................................................................................... 782
Further problems on attenuators ................................................................................... 785
Assignment 13.............................................................................................. 789
42 Filter networks ......................................................................................... 790
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 791
Basic types of filter sections .......................................................................................... 791
The characteristic impedance and the attenuation of filter sections.............................. 792
Ladder networks............................................................................................................ 795
Low-pass filter sections ................................................................................................. 797
High-pass filter sections ................................................................................................ 807
Propagation coefficient and time delay in filter sections................................................ 815
˛m-derivedÌ filter sections .............................................................................................. 825
Practical composite filters.............................................................................................. 833
Further problems on filter networks ............................................................................... 837
43 Magnetically coupled circuits................................................................... 841
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 841
Self-inductance.............................................................................................................. 841
Mutual inductance ......................................................................................................... 842
Coupling coefficient ....................................................................................................... 843
Coils connected in series .............................................................................................. 845
Coupled circuits............................................................................................................. 849
Dot rule for coupled circuits ........................................................................................... 857
Further problems on magnetically coupled circuits ....................................................... 864
44 Transmission lines................................................................................... 869
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 869
Transmission line primary constants ............................................................................. 869
Phase delay, wavelength and velocity of propagation .................................................. 871
Current and voltage relationships .................................................................................. 873
Characteristic impedance and propagation coefficient in terms of the primary
constants ....................................................................................................................... 875
Distortion on transmission lines..................................................................................... 882
Wave reflection and the reflection coefficient ................................................................ 885
Standing waves and the standing wave ratio ................................................................ 890
Further problems on transmission lines ........................................................................ 897
45 Transients and Laplace transforms ......................................................... 901
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 901
Response of R … C series circuit to a step input ............................................................ 901
Response of R … L series circuit to a step input ............................................................. 906
L … R … C series circuit response .................................................................................... 910
Introduction to Laplace transforms ................................................................................ 914
Inverse Laplace transforms and the solution of differential equations .......................... 921
Laplace transform analysis directly from the circuit diagram......................................... 930
L … R … C series circuit using Laplace transforms ........................................................... 944
Initial conditions............................................................................................................. 949
Further problems on transients and Laplace transforms ............................................... 952
Assignment 14.............................................................................................. 958
Main formulae for part 3 advanced circuit theory and technology................ 960
Complex numbers: ........................................................................................................ 960
General:......................................................................................................................... 960
R … L … C series circuit: ................................................................................................... 9600
LR … C network: .............................................................................................................. 961
LR … CR network: ........................................................................................................... 961
Determinants: ................................................................................................................ 961
Delta-star:...................................................................................................................... 961
Star-delta:...................................................................................................................... 961
Impedance matching: .................................................................................................... 961
Complex waveforms: ..................................................................................................... 961
Harmonic analysis: ........................................................................................................ 961
Hysteresis and Eddy current: ........................................................................................ 961
Dielectric loss: ............................................................................................................... 962
Field theory: ................................................................................................................... 962
Attenuators: ................................................................................................................... 962
Filter networks ............................................................................................................... 963
Magnetically coupled circuits......................................................................................... 963
Transmission lines:........................................................................................................ 964
Transients:..................................................................................................................... 964
Part 4 General Reference ...................................................................... 966
Standard electrical quantities „ their symbols and units ............................... 968
Greek alphabet............................................................................................. 971
Common prefixes ......................................................................................... 972
Resistor colour coding and ohmic values ..................................................... 973
Colour code for fixed resistors....................................................................................... 973
Letter and digit code for resistors .................................................................................. 973
Index............................................................................................................. 975

 

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Battery Reference Book free download

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements
1 1ntroduc:tion to battery technology
Electromotive force . Reversible cells . Reversible
electrodes . Relationship between electrical energy and
energy content of a cell . Free energy changes and electromotive
forces in cells . Relationship between the
energy changes accompanying a cell reaction and concentration
of the reactants . Single electrode potentials
. Activities of electrolyte solutions . Influence of ionic
concentration1 in the electrolyte on electrode potential
. Effect of sulphuric acid concentration on e.m.f.
in the lead-acid battery . End-of-charge and end-ofdischarge
e.m.f. values . Effect of cell temperature on
e.m.f. in the lead-acid battery . Effect of temperature
and temperature coefficient of voltage dEldT on
heat content change of cell reaction . Derivation of
the number of electrons involved in a cell reaction .
Thermodynamic calculation of the capacity of a battery
. Calculation of initial volume of sulphuric acid
. Calculation of operating parameters for a lead-acid
battery from calorimetric measurements . Calculation
of optimum acid volume for a cell Effect of cell layout
in batteries on battery characteristics . Calculation
of energy density of cells . Effect of discharge rate on
performance characteristics . Heating effects in batteries
. Spontaneous reaction in electrochemical cells .
Pressure development in sealed batteries
4 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-iron
secondary batteries . Nickel-zinc secondary batteries
. Nickel-hydrogen secondary batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride
secondary batteries
2 Guidelines to battery selection
Primary batteries . Secondary batteries . Conclusion
Pat3 1 Battery Characteristics
3 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Open-type lead-acid batteries . Non-spill lead-acid
batteries . Recombining sealed lead-acid batteries
5 Silver batteries
Silver oxide-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium secondary batteries
. Silver-hydrogen secondary batteries
6 Alkaline manganese batteries
Alkaline manganese primary batteries . Alkaline manganese
secondary batteries
7 Carbon-zinc and carbon-zinc chloride
primary batteries
Carbon-zinc batteries . Carbon-zinc chloride batteries
8 Mercury batteries
Mercury-zinc primary batteries . Mercury-indiumbismuth
and mercury -cadmium primary batteries
9 Lithium batteries
Introduction . Lithium- sulphur dioxide primary
batteries . Lithium-thionyl chloride primary batteries
. Lithium-vanadium pentoxide primary batteries
. Lithium-manganese dioxide primary batteries .
Lithium-copper oxide primary batteries . Lithiumsilver
chromate primary batteries . Lithium-lead
bismuthate primary cells . Lithium-polycarbon
monofluoride primary batteries . Lithium solid
electrolyte primary batteries . Lithium-iodine primary
batteries . Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary
batteries . Lithium (aluminium) iron monosulphide
secondary batteries . Lithium-iron disulphide primary
cells . Lithium- silver-vanadium pentoxide batteries
10 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
Reserve type
11 Magnesium-organic electrolyte
primary batteries
12 Metal-air cells
Zinc-air primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Cadmium-air secondary batteries . Aluminium-
air secondary batteries . Iron-air secondary
batteries
13 High-temperature thermally activated
primary reserve batteries
Performance characteristics of calcium anode thermal
batteries . Performance characteristics of lithium anode
thermal batteries
14 Zinc-halogen secondary batteries
Zinc-chlorine secondary batteries . Zinc-bromine
secondary batteries
15 Sodium-sulphur secondary batteries
16 Other fast-ion conducting solid
systems
17 Water-activated primary batteries
Magnesium-silver chloride batteries . Zinc- silver
chloride batteries . Magnesium-cuprous chloride batteries
Part 2 Battery theory and design
18 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Chemical reactions during battery cycling . Maintenance-
free lead-acid batteries . Important physical
characteristics of antimonial lead battery grid alloys
. Lead alloy development in standby (stationary)
batteries . Separators for lead-acid automotive
batteries Further reading
19 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen
and silver-hydrogen secondary batteries .
Nickel-zinc secondary batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Nickel-iron secondary
batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride secondary batteries
20 Silver batteries
Silver oxide-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium secondary batteries
21 Alkaline manganese batteries
Alkaline manganese primary batteries . Alkaline manganese
secondary batteries
22 Carbon-zinc and carbon-zinc chloride
batteries
Carbon-zinc primary batteries . Carbon-zinc chloride
primary batteries
23 Mercury-zinc batteries
Mercury-zinc primary batteries . Mercury-zinc cardiac
pacemaker batteries
24 Lithium batteries
Lithium-sulphur dioxide primary batteries . Lithiumthionyl
chloride primary batteries . Lithium-vanadium
pentoxide primary batteries . Lithium solid electrolyte
primary batteries . Lithium-iodine primary
batteries . Lithium-manganese dioxide primary
batteries . Lithium-copper oxide primary batteries
. Lithium-carbon monofluoride primary batteries .
Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary batteries
. Lithium (aluminium) iron sulphide secondary cells .
Lithium-iron disulphide primary batteries
25 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
26 Metal-air batteries
Zinc-air primary batteries . Metal-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary reserve batteries
27 High-temperature thermally activated
primary batteries
Calcium anode-based thermal batteries . Lithium anode
thermal batteries . Lithium alloy thermal batteries
28 Zinc- halogen secondary batteries
Zinc-chlorine batteries . Zinc-bromine batteries
29 Sodium-sulphur secondary batteries
References on sodium-sulphur batteries
Pard: 3 Battery performance evaluation
30 Primary batteries
Service time--voltage data . Service life-ohmic load
curves . Effect of operating temperature on service
life Voltage-capacity curves . Shelf life-percentage
capacity retained . Other characteristic curves
31 Secondary batteries
Discharge curves . Terminal voltage-discharge time
curves . Plateau voltage-battery temperature curves
I Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-discharge
rate curves . Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-
discharge temperature curves and percentage
withdrawable capacity returned-temperature curves
. Capacity returned (discharged capacity)-terminal
voltage curves . Withdrawable capacity-terminal
voltage cunies . Capacity returned (discharged
capacity) -discharge current curves . Discharge
rate-capacity returned (discharged capacity) curves .
Discharge rate-terminal voltage curves . Discharge
rate-mid-point voltage curves . Discharge rate-energy
density curves . Self-discharge characteristics and shelf
life . Float life characteristics
Part 4 Battery Applications
32 Lead-acid secondary batteries
Stationary type or standby power batteries . Traction
or motive power type . Starting, lighting and ignition
(SLI) or automotive batteries . Partially recombining
sealed lead-acid batteries . Load levelling batteries .
Electric vehicle batteries
33 Nickel lbatteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-zinc
secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen secondary
batteries . Nickel-metal hydride secondary batteries
. Nickel-iron secondary batteries . Sodium-nickel
chloride secondary batteries
34 Silver batteries
Silver-zinc primary batteries . Silver-zinc secondary
batteries . Silver-cadmium batteries
35 Alkaline manganese primary batteries
36 Carbon-zinc primary batteries
Comparison of alkaline manganese and carbon-zinc
cell drain rates . Drain characteristics of major consumer
applications
37 Mercury batteries
Mercury -zinc primary batteries . Mercury-cadmium
primary batteries . Mercury-indium-bismuth primary
batteries
38 Lithium primary batteries
Lithium- sulphur dioxide . Lithium-vanadium pentoxide
. Lithium-thionyl chloride . Lithium-manganese
dioxide . Lithium-copper oxide Lithium- silver chromate
. Lithium-lead bismuthate . Lithium-polycarbon
monofluoride . Lithium solid electrolyte . Lithiumiodine
. Comparison of lithium-iodine and nickelcadmium
cells in CMOS-RAM applications .
Lithium-iron disulphide primary cells . Lithiummolybdenum
disulphide secondary cells . Lithium
(aluminium) iron sulphide secondary cells
39 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate primary batteries
Reserve batteries . Non-reserve batteries
40 Metal-air batteries
Zinc-air Primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary batteries
41 High-temperature thermally activated
primary batteries
42 Seawater-activated primary batteries
43 Electric vehicle secondary batteries
Lead-acid batteries . Other power sources for vehicle
propulsion
Part 5 Battery charging
44 Introduction
45 Constant-potential charging
Standard CP charging . Shallow cycle CP charging
of lead-acid batteries . Deep cycle CP charging of
lead-acid batteries . Float CP charging of lead-acid
batteries . Two-step cyclic voltage-float voltage CP
charging
46 Voltage-limited taper current charging
of alkaline manganese dioxide batteries
47 Constant-current charging
Charge control and charge monitoring of sealed
nickel-cadmium batteries . The Eveready fast-charge
cell (nickel-cadmium batteries) . Types of constantcurrent
charging . Two-step constant-current charging
. Constant-current charger designs for normal-rate
charging . Controlled rapid charger design for
nickel-cadmium batteries . Transformer-type charger
design (Union Carbide) for nickel-cadmium batteries
. Transformerless charge circuits for nickel-cadmium
batteries
48 Taper charging of lead-acid motive
power batteries
Types of charger . Equalizing charge . How to choose
the right charger . Opportunity charging
49 Methods of charging large
nickel-cadmium batteries
Trickle charge/float charge . Chargeldischarge operations
on large vented nickel-cadmium batteries .
Standby operation . Ventilation
Part 6 Battery suppliers
50 Lead-acid (secondary) batteries
Motive power batteries . Standby power batteries
Automotive batteries . Sealed lead-acid batteries
Spillproof lead-acid batteries
51 Nickel batteries
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries . Nickel-hydrogen
batteries . Nickel-zinc batteries . Nickel-metal
hydride secondary batteries . Nickel-iron secondary
batteries . Sodium-nickel chloride secondary batteries
52 Silver batteries
Silver-zinc batteries . Silver-cadmium (secondary)
batteries . Silver-hydrogen secondary batteries . Silver-
iron secondary batteries
53 Alkaline manganese dioxide batteries
Primary batteries . Secondary batteries
54 Carbon-zinc batteries (primary) and
carbon-zinc chloride batteries
55 Mercury batteries
Mercury-zinc (primary) batteries . Mercury-zinc cardiac
pacemaker batteries . Other types of mercury
battery
Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries . Lithium-manganese
dioxide batteries . Lithium-silver chromate batteries
. Lithium-copper oxide batteries . Lithium-lead
bismuthate batteries . Lithium-copper oxyphosphate
cells . Lithium- polycarbon monofluoride batteries .
Lithium solid electrolyte batteries . Lithium-iodine
batteries . Lithium-molybdenum disulphide secondary
batteries . Lithium-iron disulphide primary batteries .
Lithium alloy -iron sulphide secondary batteries
57 Manganese dioxide-magnesium
perchlorate (primary) batteries
Reserve-type batteries . Non-reserve batteries
58 Magnesium-organic electrolyte
batteries
59 Metal-air cells
Zinc-air primary batteries . Zinc-air secondary batteries
. Aluminium-air secondary batteries . Iron-air
secondary batteries
60 Thermally activated batteries
61 Zinc- halogen batteries
Zinc-bromine secondary batteries
62 Sodium-sulphur batteries
63 Water-activated batteries
McMurdo Instruments magnesium-silver chloride
seawater batteries . SAFT magnesium-silver chloride
batteries . SAFT zinc-silver chloride batteries . SAFT
magnesium-copper iodide seawater-energized primary
batteries . Eagle Picher water activated primary
batteries
Suppliers of primary and secondary
batteries
Glossary
Battery standards
Battery journals, trade organizations and
conferences
Bibliography
Index
56 Lithium batteries
Lithium-vanadium pentoxide (primary) batteries
. Lithium-sulphur dioxide (primary) batteries .
Preface
Primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable)
batteries are an area of manufacturing industry
that has undlergone a tremendous growth in the past
two or three decades, both in sales volume and in
variety of products designed to meet new applications.
Not so long ago, mention of a battery to many
people brought to mind the image of an automotive
battery or a torch battery and, indeed, these
accounted for the majority of batteries being produced.
There were of course other battery applications such
as submarine and aircraft batteries, but these were
of either the lead-acid or alkaline type. Lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron and carbon-zinc represented
the only electrochemical couples in use at that
time.
There now exist a wide range of types of batteries,
both primary and secondary, utilizing couples
that were not dreamt of a few years ago. Many of
these couples have been developed and utilized to produce
batteries to meet specific applications ranging
from electric vehicle propulsion, through minute batteries
for incorporation as memory protection devices
in printed circuits in computers, to pacemaker batteries
used in h.eart surgery. This book attempts to draw
together in one place the available information on all
types of battery now being commercially produced.
It starts with a chapter dealing with the basic theory
behind t!he operation of batteries. This deals with
the effects omf such factors as couple materials, electrolyte
composition, concentration and temperature on
battery performance, and also discusses in some detail
such factors as the effect of discharge rate on battery
capacity. The basic thermodynamics involved in
battery operation are also discussed. The theoretical
treatment concentrates OK the older types of battery,
such as lead--acid, where much work has been carried
out over the years. The ideas are, however, in many
cases equally applicable to the newer types of battery
and one of the objectives of this chapter is to assist
the reader in carrying out such calculations.
The following chapters ,discuss various aspects
of primary and secondary batteries including those
batteries such as silver-zinc and alkaline manganese
which are available in both forms.
Chapter 2 is designed to present the reader with
information on the types of batteries available and to
assist him or her in choosing a type of battery which
is suitable for any particular application, whether this
be a digital watch or a lunar landing module.
Part 1 (Chapters 3-17) presents all available
information on the performance characteristics of
various types of battery and it highlights the parameters
that it is important to be aware of when considering
batteries. Such information is vital when discussing
with battery suppliers the types and characteristics of
batteries they can supply or that you may wish them
to develop.
Part 2 (Chapters 18-29) is a presentation of the theory,
as far as it is known, behind the working of all the
types of battery now commercially available and of the
limitations that battery electrochemistry might place
on performance. It also discusses the ways in which
the basic electrochemistry influences battery design.
Whilst battery design has always been an important
factor influencing performance and other factors such
as battery weight it is assuming an even greater
importance in more recently developed batteries.
Part 3 (Chapters 30 and 3 1) is a comprehensive discussion
of practical methods for determining the performance
characteristics of all types of battery. This is
important to both the battery producer and the battery
user. Important factors such as the measurement of the
effect of discharge rate and temperature on available
capacity and life are discussed.
Part 4 (Chapters 32-43) is a wide ranging look at
the current applications of various types of battery
and indicates areas of special interest such as vehicle
propulsion, utilities loading and microelectronic and
computer applications.
Part 5 (Chapters 44-49) deals with all aspects of
the theory and practice of battery charging and will be
of great interest to the battery user.
Finally, Part 6 (Chapters 50-63) discusses the massive
amount of information available from battery

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Motivation

Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions

• Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years

The global consumption of primary energy has been marked by a strong increase in
the past 40 years. Figure 1.1 presents the development of primary energy consumption,
broken down into groupings, namely industrial countries of the OECD; former
Soviet Union; and emerging economies (i.e. developing countries). In 1965, the
worldwide consumption of primary energy amounted to only 3,860 MTOE (million
tonnes of oil equivalent); by 2005, it had increased to 10,224 MTOE. This corresponds
to an increase of 172% or an annual rate of increase of 2.5% (BP 2008). In
industrial countries, the increase was around 107% for 40 years, corresponding to
an annual rate of increase of almost 2%. In the emerging economies, which started
from a lower absolute level, the increase was 640%, which corresponds to an annual
rate of increase of more than 5%.
Figure 1.2 shows the share of primary energy consumption of the different countries
and regions for the year 2005. A conspicuous fact here is the high share of
North America, where in the USA alone almost a quarter of the entire primary
energy of the world is consumed.
In 2005, the fossil energy sources, i.e. crude oil, natural gas and coal, comprised
87% of primary energy consumption (see Fig. 1.3).

• Developments Until 2030

Predictions of the development of primary energy consumption are based on various
assumptions about the total population, the gross national product and the energy
efficiency of different countries and are highly dependent on general political conditions.
The following shall present predictions of the development of the energy
demand up until 2030, which predominantly rely on an extrapolation of the current
developments and general conditions. The effect of political measures introduced

until now is reflected; future possible and also probable measures are not taken into
consideration. The reference scenario of the International Energy Agency (IEA) in
2006, for instance, assumes a growth of the world population to 8.1 thousand million
up to the year 2030 (2004: 6.4 thousand million), an increase of the gross national
product of 4% at the beginning, levelling off at 2.9% per year, and natural oil prices
of somewhat more than $60 per barrel (real price 2005). Technologies of power
supply and energy utilisation (end-use technologies) become ever more efficient.
The predictions illustrated in Figs. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 of global primary energy
demand, electric power generation, installed power plant capacities and CO2 emissions
rely on data of the IEA and the US Department of Energy (DoE) (IEA 2002,

2006b, a; DoE 2007). They describe probable development if no dramatic measures
are taken to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Possible measures shall
be discussed in Sect. 1.3.
According to Fig. 1.4, global primary energy consumption will increase by more
than 60% (in comparison to the year 2000) by 2030, which corresponds to an annual
rate of increase of about 1.6%. This increase can be explained on the one hand
by the growth of the world population and on the other by the accumulated needs
of the emerging economies, such as China and India. Predictions, for example for
China, say that the energy consumption will double in such countries. Fossil energy
sources will continue to cover more than 80% of the primary energy consumption in
2030, with crude oil still making up the most important energy source, with a rough
fraction of about 35%. Natural gas among all the energy sources shows the highest
rates of increase – the consumption of it will double with respect to the year 2000
and its relative fraction will rise to 26%. The fraction of coal will decrease slightly,

arriving at about 22% by 2030. In the absolute, though, the consumption rises by
50% from the year 2000.
Electric power (see Fig. 1.5) will still further consolidate its great importance
as an end-use energy source. The consumption of electric power will about double
between 2000 and 2030, the rates of increase of 2.4% per year ranging clearly above
the growth rates of primary energy consumption. Coal, with about 37%, will be the
most important primary energy source in electric power generation; natural gas will
increase its share to more than 30%.
The predicted rise of electric power consumption requires the installation of
new power plants on a considerable scale (see Fig. 1.6). The power plant capacity
installed worldwide amounted to about 3,400GW in 2000 and is supposed to
rise to 7,060 in 2030. Taking into consideration that old plants have to be removed

from service and replaced, it follows that, by 2030, electricity-generating plants
with a total capacity of 4,800GW will have to be erected throughout the world.
This corresponds to 9,600 power plants with an electrical power output of 500MW.
One has to assume in this respect that new power plants will be built predominantly
for primary energy sources such as natural gas (about 2,000 GW) and coal (about
1,500 GW). In China alone, thermal power plants, for example, with a total power
of 720GW shall have to be installed by 2020; per year, between 30 and 40 new
coal-fired power plants with a capacity of 600MW are currently being built. While
in the emerging economies and developing countries, new power plants cover the
added demand, new power plants in Europe are planned mainly as substitutes for
existing old plants. By the year 2020, about 200GW of power station capacity shall
be newly installed in Europe.
The CO2 emissions illustrated in Fig. 1.7 suggest a likely rise to about 38 thousand
million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year until 2030. Referring to the year
2000, this corresponds to a rise of about 68%.

to be continued 

preliminary chemical engineering plant design free download

contents

1 . INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS DESIGN 1
Research, 2. Other Sources of Innovations, 3. Process Engineering,
4. Professional Responsibilities, 7. Competing Processes,
8 . Typical Problems a Process Engineer Tackles, 9. Comparison with
A l t e r n a t i v e s , 1 4 . C o m p l e t i n g t h e Project, 16. Units,
17. References, 18. Bibliography, 18.
2 . SITE SELECTION
Major Site Location Factors, 25. Other Site Location Factors, 34. Case
Study: Site Selection, 48. References, 54.
23
3 . THE SCOPE 57
The Product, 60. Capacity, 60. Quality, 66. Raw Material Storage,
67. Product Storage, 68. The Process, 69. Waste Disposal,
Utilities, Shipping and Laboratory Requirements, 70. Plans for Future Expansion,
70. Hours of Operation, 71. Completion Date,
71. Safety, 71. Case Study: Scope, 72. Scope Summary,
75. References, 78.
4 . PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY
Chemistry, 79. Separations, 80. Unit Ratio Material Balance,
8 4 . Detailed Flow Sheet, 85. Safety, 89. Case Study: Process Design,
97. Change of Scope, 103. References, 103.
5 . EQUIPMENT LIST
Sizing of Equipment, 106. Planning for Future Expansion,
111. Materials of Construction, 113. Temperature and Pressure,
113. Laboratory Equipment, 114. Completion of Equipment List,
114. Rules of Thumb, 114. Case Study: Major Equipment Required,
117. Change of Scope, 132. References, 133.
6. LAYOUT 141
79
105
New Plant Layout, 141. Expansion and Improvements of Existing
Facilities, 152. Case Study: Layout and Warehouse Requirements,
153. References, 158.
vii
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Product Quality 160. Product Quantity, 160. Plant Safety,
161. Manual or Automatic Control, 161. Control System,
162. Variables to be Measured, 162. Final Control Element,
163. Control and Instrumentation Symbols, 164. Averaging versus Set
Point Control, 166. Material Balance Control, 167. Tempered Heat
Transfer, 168. Cascade Control, 170. Feedforward Control,
171. Blending, 172. Digital Control, 172. Pneumatic versus Electronic
Equipment, 173. Case Study: Instrumentation and Control,
174. References, 180.
159
8. ENERGY AND UTILITY BALANCES
AND MANPOWER NEEDS 181
Conservation of Energy, 182. Energy Balances, 183. Sizing Energy
Equipment, 191. Planning for Expansion, 204. Lighting,
205. Ventilation, Space Heating and Cooling, and Personal Water Requirements,
207. Utility Requirements, 209. Manpower Requirements,
210. Rules of Thumb, 2 11. Case Study: Energy Balance and
Utility Assessment, 213. Change of Scope, 231. References, 232.
9 . COST ESTIMATION 237
Cost Indexes, 237. How Capacity Affects Costs, 239. Factored Cost
Estimate, 246. Improvements on the Factored Estimate, 249. Module
Cost Estimation, 254. Unit Operations Estimate, 258. Detailed Cost
Estimate, 263. Accuracy of Estimates, 264. Case Study: Capital Cost
Estimation, 264. References, 275.
1 0 . ECONOMICS
Cost of Producing a Chemical, 28 1. Capital, 284. Elementary Profitability
Measures, 285. Time Value of Money, 293. Compound Interest,
295. Net Present Value-A Good Profitability Measure, 307. Rate of
Return-Another Good Profitability Measure, 311. Comparison of Net
Present Value and Rate of Return Methods, 316. Proper Interest Rates,
317. Expected Return on the Investment, 323. Case Study: Economic
Evaluation, 324. Problems, 330. References, 338.
1 1 . DEPRECIATION, AMORTIZATION, DEPLETION
AND INVESTMENT CREDIT
Depreciation, 339. Amortization, 348. Depletion Allowance,
348. Investment Credit, 349. Special Tax Rules, 350. Case Study:
The Net Present Value and Rate of Return, 350. Problems.
351. References, 352.
1 2 . DETAILED ENGINEERING,
CONSTRUCTION, AND STARTUP
Detailed Engineering, 353. Construction 361. Startup,
PLANNING TOOLS-CPM AND PERT
CPM, 370. Manpower and Equipment Leveling, 376. Cost and
Schedule Control, 380. Time for Completing Activity, 380.
Computers, 381. PERT, 382. Problems, 386. References, 390.
OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Starting Point, 392. One-at-a-Time Procedure, 393. Single Variable
Gptimizations, 396. Multivariable Optimizations, 396. End Game,
409. Algebraic Objective Functions, 409. Optimizing Optimizations ,
409. Optimization and Process Design, 410. References, 412.
DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND PROCESS ENGINEERING
Computer Programs, 416. Sensitivity, 420. Program Sources,
420. Evaluation of Computer Programs, 421. References, 422.
POLLUTION AND ITS ABATEMENT
What is Pollution?, 424. Determining Pollution Standards,
425. Meeting Pollution Standards, 428. Air Pollution Abatement
Methods, 431. Water Pollution Abatement Methods, 437. BOD and
COD, 447. Concentrated Liquid and Solid Waste Treatment Procedures,

 

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