MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering
into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Strictly
speaking, “materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, “materials engineering”
is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering
the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.2
From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize
new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new
products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing
materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both
materials scientists and materials engineers.
“Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In
brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and
interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization
of atoms or molecules relative to one another.The next larger structural
realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together,
is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct observation
using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”
The notion of “property” deserves elaboration.While in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example,
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal
surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude
of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties
are made independent of material shape and size.
Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples
include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical
conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior
of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of
a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation;
index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally,
deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.The chapters
that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six classifications.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are
involved in the science and engineering of materials—namely, “processing” and
“performance.”With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure
of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance
will be a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between
processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic
illustration shown in Figure 1.1. Throughout this text we draw attention to the
contents
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii
1. Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5
1.4 Classification of Materials 5
1.5 Advanced Materials 11
1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 12
References 13
2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15
Learning Objectives 16
2.1 Introduction 16
ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16
2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16
2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17
2.4 The Periodic Table 23
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30
2.8 Molecules 32
Summary 34
Important Terms and Concepts 34
References 35
Questions and Problems 35
3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 38
Learning Objectives 39
3.1 Introduction 39
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 39
3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39
3.3 Unit Cells 40
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41
3.5 Density Computations 45
3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46
3.7 Crystal Systems 46
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND
PLANES 49
3.8 Point Coordinates 49
3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51
3.10 Crystallographic Planes 55
3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 60
3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE
MATERIALS 63
3.13 Single Crystals 63
3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64
3.15 Anisotropy 64
3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of
Crystal Structures 66
3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71
Summary 72
Important Terms and Concepts 73
References 73
Questions and Problems 74
4. Imperfections in Solids 80
Learning Objectives 81
4.1 Introduction 81
POINT DEFECTS 81
4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81
4.3 Impurities in Solids 83
4.4 Specification of Composition 85
MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 88
4.5 Dislocations–Linear Defects 88
4.6 Interfacial Defects 92
4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 96
4.8 Atomic Vibrations 96
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 97
4.9 General 97
4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98
4.11 Grain Size Determination 102
Summary 104
Important Terms and Concepts 105
References 105
Questions and Problems 106
Design Problems 108
5. Diffusion 109
Learning Objectives 110
5.1 Introduction 110
5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 111
5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112
5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114
5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118
5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125
Summary 125
Important Terms and Concepts 126
References 126
Questions and Problems 126
Design Problems 129
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131
Learning Objectives 132
6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133
ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137
6.4 Anelasticity 140
6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141
PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143
6.6 Tensile Properties 144
6.7 True Stress and Strain 151
6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic
Deformation 154
6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional
Deformation 154
6.10 Hardness 155
PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY
FACTORS 161
6.11 Variability of Material Properties 161
6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163
Summary 165
Important Terms and Concepts 166
References 166
Questions and Problems 166
Design Problems 172
7. Dislocations and Strengthening
Mechanisms 174
Learning Objectives 175
7.1 Introduction 175
DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC
DEFORMATION 175
7.2 Basic Concepts 175
7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178
7.4 Slip Systems 179
7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 181
7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline
Materials 185
7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185
7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size
Reduction 188
7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190
7.10 Strain Hardening 191
RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN
GROWTH 194
7.11 Recovery 195
7.12 Recrystallization 195
7.13 Grain Growth 200
Summary 201
Important Terms and Concepts 202
References 202
Questions and Problems 202
Design Problems 206
8. Failure 207
Learning Objectives 208
8.1 Introduction 208
FRACTURE 208
8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 208
8.3 Ductile Fracture 209
8.4 Brittle Fracture 211
8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215
8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223
FATIGUE 227
8.7 Cyclic Stresses 228
8.8 The S–N Curve 229
8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232
8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234
8.11 Environmental Effects 237
CREEP 238
8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238
8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239
8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241
8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature
Use 242
Summary 243
Important Terms and Concepts 245
References 246
Questions and Problems 246
Design Problems 250
9. Phase Diagrams 252
Learning Objectives 253
9.1 Introduction 253
DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 253
Contents • xvii
9.2 Solubility Limit 254
9.3 Phases 254
9.4 Microstructure 255
9.5 Phase Equilibria 255
9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase
Diagrams 256
BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258
9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 258
9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260
9.9 Development of Microstructure in
Isomorphous Alloys 264
9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous
Alloys 268
9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269
9.12 Development of Microstructure in
Eutectic Alloys 276
9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having
Intermediate Phases or
Compounds 282
9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284
9.15 Congruent Phase
Transformations 286
9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase
Diagrams 287
9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287
THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 290
9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase
Diagram 290
9.19 Development of Microstructure in
Iron–Carbon Alloys 293
9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying
Elements 301
Summary 302
Important Terms and Concepts 303
References 303
Questions and Problems 304
10. Phase Transformations in Metals:
Development of Microstructure
and Alteration of Mechanical
Properties 311
Learning Objectives 312
10.1 Introduction 312
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312
10.2 Basic Concepts 312
10.3 The Kinetics of Phase
Transformations 313
10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium
States 324
10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 325
10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation
Diagrams 335
10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon
Alloys 339
10.8 Tempered Martensite 343
10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and
Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon
Alloys 346
Summary 350
Important Terms and Concepts 351
References 352
Questions and Problems 352
Design Problems 356
11. Applications and Processing of
Metal Alloys 358
Learning Objectives 359
11.1 Introduction 359
TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 359
11.2 Ferrous Alloys 359
11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 372
FABRICATION OF METALS 382
11.4 Forming Operations 383
11.5 Casting 384
11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 386
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 387
11.7 Annealing Processes 388
11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels 390
11.9 Precipitation Hardening 402
Summary 407
Important Terms and Concepts 409
References 409
Questions and Problems 410
Design Problems 411
12. Structures and Properties of
Ceramics 414
Learning Objectives 415
12.1 Introduction 415
CERAMIC STRUCTURES 415
12.2 Crystal Structures 415
12.3 Silicate Ceramics 426
12.4 Carbon 430
12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 434
12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 438
12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 442
12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442
12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 447
12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic
Deformation 449
12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical
Considerations 451
Summary 453
Important Terms and Concepts 454
References 454
Questions and Problems 455
Design Problems 459
13. Applications and Processing of
Ceramics 460
Learning Objectives 461
13.1 Introduction 461
TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF
CERAMICS 461
13.2 Glasses 461
13.3 Glass–Ceramics 462
13.4 Clay Products 463
13.5 Refractories 464
13.6 Abrasives 466
13.7 Cements 467
13.8 Advanced Ceramics 468
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF
CERAMICS 471
13.9 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses
and Glass–Ceramics 471
13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay
Products 476
13.11 Powder Pressing 481
13.12 Tape Casting 484
Summary 484
Important Terms and Concepts 486
References 486
Questions and Problems 486
Design Problem 488
14. Polymer Structures 489
Learning Objectives 490
14.1 Introduction 490
14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490
14.3 Polymer Molecules 492
14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer
Molecules 493
14.5 Molecular Weight 497
14.6 Molecular Shape 500
14.7 Molecular Structure 501
14.8 Molecular Configurations 503
14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
Polymers 506
14.10 Copolymers 507
14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 508
14.12 Polymer Crystals 512
14.13 Defects in Polymers 514
14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515
Summary 517
Important Terms and Concepts 519
References 519
Questions and Problems 519
15. Characteristics, Applications, and
Processing of Polymers 523
Learning Objectives 524
15.1 Introduction 524
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 524
15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 524
15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 527
15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 527
15.5 Fracture of Polymers 532
15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical
Characteristics 533
MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR
STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535
15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline
Polymers 535
15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical
Properties of Semicrystalline
Polymers 538
15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 541
CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS
TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544
15.10 Crystallization 544
15.11 Melting 545
15.12 The Glass Transition 545
15.13 Melting and Glass Transition
Temperatures 546
15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass
Transition Temperatures 547
POLYMER TYPES 549
15.15 Plastics 549
15.16 Elastomers 552
15.17 Fibers 554
15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 555
15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 560
15.20 Polymerization 561
15.21 Polymer Additives 563
15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565
15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 567
15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 568
Summary 569
Important Terms and Concepts 571
References 571
Questions and Problems 572
Design Questions 576
16. Composites 577
Learning Objectives 578
16.1 Introduction 578
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 580
16.2 Large-Particle Composites 580
16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened
Composites 584
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 585
16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 585
16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and
Concentration 586
16.6 The Fiber Phase 595
16.7 The Matrix Phase 596
16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597
16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 603
16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605
16.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 606
16.12 Hybrid Composites 607
16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced
Composites 607
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 610
16.14 Laminar Composites 610
16.15 Sandwich Panels 611
Summary 613
Important Terms and Concepts 615
References 616
Questions and Problems 616
Design Problems 619
17. Corrosion and Degradation of
Materials 621
Learning Objectives 622
17.1 Introduction 622
CORROSION OF METALS 622
17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 623
17.3 Corrosion Rates 630
17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 631
17.5 Passivity 638
17.6 Environmental Effects 640
17.7 Forms of Corrosion 640
17.8 Corrosion Environments 648
17.9 Corrosion Prevention 649
17.10 Oxidation 651
CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 654
DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 655
17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 655
17.12 Bond Rupture 657
17.13 Weathering 658
Summary 659
Important Terms and Concepts 660
References 661
Questions and Problems 661
Design Problems 644
18. Electrical Properties 665
Learning Objectives 666
18.1 Introduction 666
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 666
18.2 Ohm’s Law 666
18.3 Electrical Conductivity 667
18.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 668
18.5 Energy Band Structures in
Solids 668
18.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and
Atomic Bonding Models 671
18.7 Electron Mobility 673
18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 674
18.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial
Alloys 677
SEMICONDUCTIVITY 679
18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 679
18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 682
18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier
Concentration 686
18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 688
18.14 The Hall Effect 692
18.15 Semiconductor Devices 694
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS
AND IN POLYMERS 700
18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 701
18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 701
DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 702
18.18 Capacitance 703
18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 704
18.20 Types of Polarization 708
18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric
Constant 709
18.22 Dielectric Strength 711
18.23 Dielectric Materials 711
OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATERIALS 711
18.24 Ferroelectricity 711
18.25 Piezoelectricity 712
Summary 713
Important Terms and Concepts 715
References 715
Questions and Problems 716
Design Problems 720
19. Thermal Properties W1
Learning Objectives W2
19.1 Introduction W2
19.2 Heat Capacity W2
19.3 Thermal Expansion W4
19.4 Thermal Conductivity W7
19.5 Thermal Stresses W12
Summary W14
Important Terms and Concepts W15
References W15
Questions and Problems W15
Design Problems W17
20. Magnetic Properties W19
Learning Objectives W20
20.1 Introduction W20
20.2 Basic Concepts W20
20.3 Diamagnetism and
Paramagnetism W24
20.4 Ferromagnetism W26
20.5 Antiferromagnetism and
Ferrimagnetism W28
20.6 The Influence of Temperature on
Magnetic Behavior W32
20.7 Domains and Hysteresis W33
20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy W37
20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials W38
20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials W41
20.11 Magnetic Storage W44
20.12 Superconductivity W47
Summary W50
Important Terms and Concepts W52
References W52
Questions and Problems W53
Design Problems W56
21. Optical Properties W57
Learning Objectives W58
21.1 Introduction W58
BASIC CONCEPTS W58
21.2 Electromagnetic Radiation W58
21.3 Light Interactions with Solids W60
21.4 Atomic and Electronic
Interactions W61
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS W62
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS W63
21.5 Refraction W63
21.6 Reflection W65
21.7 Absorption W65
21.8 Transmission W68
21.9 Color W69
21.10 Opacity and Translucency in
Insulators W71
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA W72
21.11 Luminescence W72
21.12 Photoconductivity W72
21.13 Lasers W75
21.14 Optical Fibers in Communications W79
Summary W82
Important Terms and Concepts W83
References W84
Questions and Problems W84
Design Problem W85
22. Materials Selection and Design
Considerations W86
Learning Objectives W87
22.1 Introduction W87
MATERIALS SELECTION FOR A TORSIONALLY
STRESSED CYLINDRICAL SHAFT W87
22.2 Strength Considerations–Torsionally
Stressed Shaft W88
22.3 Other Property Considerations and the
Final Decision W93
AUTOMOTIVE VALVE SPRING W94
22.4 Mechanics of Spring Deformation W94
22.5 Valve Spring Design and Material
Requirements W95
22.6 One Commonly Employed Steel
Alloy W98
FAILURE OF AN AUTOMOBILE REAR
AXLE W101
22.7 Introduction W101
22.8 Testing Procedure and Results W102
22.9 Discussion W108
ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT W108
22.10 Anatomy of the Hip Joint W108
22.11 Material Requirements W111
22.12 Materials Employed W112
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING W115
22.13 Introduction W115
22.14 Assessment of CPC Glove Materials to
Protect Against Exposure to Methylene
Chloride W115
MATERIALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
PACKAGES W119
22.15 Introduction W119
22.16 Leadframe Design and Materials W120
22.17 Die Bonding W121
22.18 Wire Bonding W124
22.19 Package Encapsulation W125
22.20 Tape Automated Bonding W127
Summary W129
References W130
Design Questions and Problems W131
23. Economic, Environmental, and
Societal Issues in Materials Science
and Engineering W135
Learning Objectives W136
23.1 Introduction W136
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS W136
23.2 Component Design W137
23.3 Materials W137
23.4 Manufacturing Techniques W137
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL
CONSIDERATIONS W137
23.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and
Engineering W140
Summary W143
References W143
Design Question W144
Appendix A The International System of
Units A1
Appendix B Properties of Selected
Engineering Materials A3
B.1 Density A3
B.2 Modulus of Elasticity A6
B.3 Poisson’s Ratio A10
